Thinking
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
2. This chapter aims at raising students general proficiency in English to a level appropriate for university study.
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
astray, combine, consume, contradict, hazard, irrelevant, logically, manipulation, prevent, sound, typical, willingness
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
concept, confirmation bias, critical thinking, daydreaming, deductive, reasoning, framing, inductive reasoning, premise, proposition,
prototype, reasoning, remember
3. Translate this lesson (thinking) into Persian.
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
General words
Astray (adv):
to become lost or go to the wrong place; off the right track; unfavorably
The boy was led astray by bad friends.
Combine (v):
if you combine things or they combine, you use, do, or put them together;
join together
Some teaching methods combine education with activity and sport.
Consume (v):
to eat or drink something; eat up
In due negative effects, many people have reduced the amount of red meat they consume.
Contradict (v):
to say that the opposite of what someone has said is true; deny the truth of something said or written; challenge
She didn't dare contradict her parents and relatives.
Hazard (n):
something that could be dangerous or cause damage or accident; risk
There must be protection from radiation hazards during pregnancy period.
Irrelevant (adj):
not important or not relevant to what you are discussing or doing; unrelated; out of place; extraneous
What you said is irrelevant to the theory.
Logically (adv):
connecting ideas and reasons in a sensible way; rational
He presented his ideas clearly and logically.
Manipulation (n):
behavior that influences someone or controls something in a clever or dishonest way
Scientists are attempting, by genetic manipulation, to produce more
effective drugs.
Prevent (v):
to stop something from happening; to stop someone from doing something; restrain.
actions prevented several diseases from spreading.?
Sound (adj):
involving the use of good judgment, and therefore likely to be effective; reliable
Psychiatrists should make sure the drugs are legally sound.
Typical (adj):
like most things of the same type; representative or characteristic; classic; regular
The professor followed a typical teaching method in the classroom.
Willingness (n):
ready to help, to do what is needed, asked, etc.; to show that you are willing to do something; readiness
Teacher was impressed by student willingness to listen and learn.
Key words
Concept (n):
a mental category of objects or ideas based on properties they share; the internal, psychological, representation of the shared attributes
Some concepts like pen is regarded as highly concrete, casily identifiable, easily imaged and easily categorized
Confirmation bias (n):
the tendency to selectively attend to information that supports one's general beliefs while ignoring information or evidence that contradicts one's beliefs
Confirmation bias is the tendency to abandon logical rules in favour of our own personal beliefs.
Critical thinking (n):
process by which one analyzes, evaluates, and forms ideas as
The core traits of critical thinking are sound analysis, evaluation, and information of ideas based on the evidence at hand.
Daydreaming (n):
mental fantasies while one is awake; imagining; fantasy
Some findings suggest that daydreaming is associated with mental health.
Deductive reasoning (n):
reasoning from general statements of what is known to specific conclusions
In deductive reasoning, the specific conclusion is always true if the general statement is true.
Framing (n):
the idea that the same information, problem or options can be structured and presented in different ways
Framing influences how we perceive information and can interfere with logical reasoning.
Inductive reasoning (n):
reasoning to general conclusions from specific evidence
When scientists develop theories, they employ inductive reasoning because they offer general statements that explain many specific facts or observations.
Premise (n):
a principle or statement that you consider to be true, that you based other ideas and actions on; assumption.
The conclusions in the report were based on a false premise.
Proposition (n):
whatever can be expressed in the standard form of an indicative sentence; proposal; plan
This proposition is so clear that it needs no explanation.
Prototype (n):
the most typical and familiar members of a category, or class; the original, primitive type or forms of a thing
The use of prototypes is perhaps the most elementary method of forming concepts.
Reasoning (n):
the process of drawing inferences or conclusions from principles and
evidence; proof
The reasoning behind this theory appears to be sound.
Remember (v):
to recall, recollect or reproduce an earlier experience, event, stimulus, etc.; remind
The patient can still remember every experience of his life.
_Thinking
Thinking is a general term that refers to all conscious mental activity, whether it is acquiring new knowledge, remembering, planning ahead, or daydreaming. We are still far from understanding exactly how the brain
produces thought, it is clear that thought exists as patterns of neural activity from a biological level of analysis. At the psychological level, thinking may seem to be internal language of the mind somewhat like it actually includes several mental activities. Thinking involves the manipulation of two forms of mental representations: propositions and concepts.
Analysis
Inner speech
Much of our thinking occurs in the form of propositions, statements that express ideas. All propositions consist of concepts combined in a particular way. For example, 'university students are intelligent peopleis a proposition in which the two concepts ' university studentsand intelligent people are linked by the verb are. Concepts are basic units of semantic memory-mental categories into which we place objects, activities, abstractions and events that have essential features in common. Every psychological term we are learning in this book is a concept.
EXPress
Semantic
Concepts can be acquired through explicit instruction or through our own observations of similarities and differences among various objects and events. Many concepts are difficult to define exactly. Is an eagle a bird Is
a penguin a bird Is a bat a bird According to the prototype view, the most typical and familiar members of a category or class, you should have come to a quicker decision on the first question than on the last to. Why
Because an eagle fits most people's 'bird' prototype better than does a penguin (which is a bird, though it lacks some essential prototypic features, such as the ability to fly) or a bat (which is not a bird, even though it flies).
Instruction
Eagle
Penguin
Bat
One aspect of intelligent thinking is the ability to reason and think logically. Such thinking helps us acquire knowledge, make sound decisions and solve problems. Reasoning helps us avoid the hazards and time consuming efforts of trail and error. Most of the time, people solve problems by developing solutions in their minds before applying them in the external world. Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning are two types of reasoning underlie many of our attempts to make decisions and solve problems. In deductive reasoning, we reason from the top down, that is, from general principles to a conclusion about a specific case.
Avoid
Trail
General principle
When people deductively, they begin with a set of premises (propositions assumed to be true) and determine what the promises imply about a specific situation. Deductive reasoning is the basis of formal mathematics and logic. For example, if all humans are mortal (first premise), and if Socrates is a human (second premise), then Socrates must be mortal (conclusion). However, in inductive reasoning, we reason from the bottom
9up, starting with specific facts and trying to develop a general principle, Scientists use induction when they discover general principles, or laws, as of observing a number of specific instances of phenomenon.
Deductively
Premises
Imply
Mathematics
Mortal
After Ivan Pavlov observed repeatedly that the dogs in his laboratory began to salivate when approached by the experimenter who fed them, he began to think in terms of a general principle that eventually became the
foundation of classical conditioning (repeated conditioned stimulus - unconditioned stimulus pairings produce a conditioned response).
Salivate
Feed
Eventually
Foundation
Pairing
An important difference between deductive and inductive reasoning lies in the certainty of the results. Deductive conclusions are certain to be true if the premises are true, but inductive reasoning leads to likelihood rather
than certainty.
The ability to reason effectively is a key factor in critical thinking, in making sound decisions, and in solving problems. Unfortunately, several factors may prevent us from selecting the information needed to draw sound conclusions.
Unfortunately
Several
One of these factors is distraction by irrelevant information. People often fail to solve problems because they simply do not focus on the relevant information. Instead, they take into account irrelevant information that leads them astray. One of the other factors is confirmation bias.
Confirmation bias is the tendency to selectively attend to information that support one's general beliefs while ignoring information or evidence that contradicts one's beliefs. Reasoning can be affected by the particular way that information is presented to us, or Framing refers to the idea that the same information, problem or options can be structured and presented in different ways.
Instead
Astray
Tendency
For example, in one classic study, college students who were told that a cancer treatment had a 50 per cent success rate judged the treatment to be significantly more effective and expressed a greater willingness to have it
administered to a family member than did participants who were told that the treatment had a 50 per cent failure rate. In conclusion, thinking is a broad term that refers to how we use knowledge to analyze situations, solve problems, and make decisions. In next chapters we describe these cognitive abilities.
College
Cancer
Rate
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 1.1
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢ or d.
The passage explains .......... ’ .1
( .... AS
a. remembering c. planning ahead
b. process of thinking d. daydreaming
( (©
( (
2. The word “foundation” is closest in meaning to . ... » foundation )
12
a. the confirmation > treatment
b. the astray d. base
©) 8) ) (
b) d)
3. It can be inferred from the passage that reasoning leads us to the
OF
....
a. propositions >. problem solving
b. concepts d. the hazards
©) 8)
(d 0
4. When we reason from general statements of what is known to specific
conclusions, we are engaging in .......... .
« (
pew pple
©. inductive reasoning
d. classical conditioning
©) (a
0) (b
5. When scientists develop theories, they employ ................ because they
offer general statements that explain many specific facts or observations.
¢ ot GF 0 Gy «
...
inductive 2688001717 .©
d. deductive reasoning
©) 8)
(Ss (d )0
.6 Which of the following would be considered a prototype for fruit
(
a. kiwi ¢. tomato
b. carrot d. apple
a. deductive
b. ignoring information
a. confirmation bias
b. prototypic features
©) )
0
7. One of the factors may prevent us from selecting the information needed
to draw sound conclusions are ...........
13) gle
a. framing c. first premise
b. logic d. inductive reasoning / )8
b) d)
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 1.2
1-
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
HA B .
A B
1. prototype A. the process of drawing inferences or conclusions
2. proposition from principles and evidence
3. daydreaming B. reasoning to general conclusions from specific
4. willingness evidence
5. reasoning C. process by which one analyzes, evaluates, and
6. hazard forms ideas
7. prevent D. the most typical and familiar members of a
8.deductive category, or class
reasoning E. reasoning from general statements of what is
9. astray known to specific conclusions
10.inductive F. to eat or drink something
reasoning G. whatever can be expressed in the standard form
11 critical thinking of
12. consume an indicative sentence.
13. combine H. connecting ideas and reasons in a sensible way
1. something that could be dangerous or cause
damage or accident
J. to become lost or go to the wrong place
K. behavior that influences someone or controls
something in a clever or dishonest way
L. to stop something from happening; to stop
someone from doing something
M. if you combine things or they combine, you
14
use,
do, or put them together
N. ready to help, to do what is needed or asked
O. mental fantasies while one is awake
Exercise 1.3
op 08
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete
the sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
remember, deductive reasoning, manipulation, prototypes, critical
thinking, concepts, sound, daydreaming, classical conditioning,
confirmation bias, sound, premise, ignoring information, inductive
reasoning, propositions, prevent
l. makes it easier to communicate with others and learn
new information.
. SLT .. 2. Counselor suggest patient that he leaves .......... and get back to work.
.
3. When scientists make specific predictions from their general theories,
they are engaging in ..........
( ..... ©
4. Humans exhibit .......... , a tendency to look for facts to support
hypotheses rather than to disprove it. - ....
.
(F
5.A(@n).......... decision needs to deep thinking and to be patient
( .
6. The inquiry showed that .......... of students’ ideas is necessary.
#( ... .
7. Some reasoning leads to a false conclusion because it is based on false
15)
...
igh
oly
8. is not a single skill, but rather a set of attitudes and thinking
skills.
Cn
.
.9 Conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning are less certain that those
drawn from ....
..
.
10. Concepts can be combined into .......... to create simple and complex
thoughts.
: +
.... eye infections.
12. Children's early concepts are based on .......... of the objects and
people they encounter personally.
OY ... ... .
13:1 that I was really nervous on my first y day at university: nervous on my y
OF ..... ... .
16
----------
Creativity
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
2. This chapter aims at raising studentsgeneral proficiency in English
to a level appropriate for university study.
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
brick, category, come off, elevator, entail, flexibility, fluency, focus, gauge, geometric, highlight, novel, obvious, offer, originality, possess, pronounced, quality, ride, sensitive, unconventional, unstable, unusual
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
characteristic, creative thinking, creativity, emotionally, openness to experience, personality, self- confidence, trait, visual imagery
3. Translate this lesson (creativity) into Persian
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
General words
Brick (n):
a small block used for building walls and other structures
The mosque was built entirely of brick.
Category (n):
a group of people or things that have similar qualities
The winners in each of the ten categories were then chosen.
Come off (vb):
to achieve a particular result in an activity, especially a competition or fight; succeed
The party didn't quite come off as we had hoped.
Elevator (n):
alift in a building
Since you building is very high, you need an elevator.
Entail (v):
if a situation or action entails a particular thing, it involves having or doing that thing; impose
Building the airport entails reclaiming huge areas of land from the sea.
Flexibility (n):
the ability to make changes or to deal with a situation that is changing
We need greater flexibility in the use of resources.
Fluency (n):
ability to speak smoothly and readily
This new job enquires fluency in English language.
Focus (n):
the thing that people are concentrating on or paying particular attention to;
focal point
OT ifs SHS
We have chosen eleven communities as the focus of our study.
Gauge (v):
to make ajudgment or guess about situation, action, or person based on the information that you have; measure
Ifailed to gauge the strength of her hate.
Geometric (adj):
relating to simple shapes, especially when these form regular patterns
Geometric patterns are necessary for your data analysis.
Highlight (v):
to report or describe something in a way that makes people notice it and think about it
The incident has served to highlight the problems of urban deprivation
Novel (adj):
new or unusual; modern
A novel solution is necessary for solving current economic problem.
Obvious (adj):
clear to almost anyone; evident
oll
The most obvious explanation is not always the correct one.
Offer (v):
to provide something such as a product or service; present
The department offers a course on advanced philosophy each year.
Originality (adv):
at first; initially; primarily
His novels were originally published in serial form in a magazine.
Possess (v):
to have a quality or ability; hold
Mobina is a girl who possesses a rare intelligence.
Pronounced (adj):
very obvious or noticeable; clear-cut
He still has a pronounced French accent at the university.
Quality (n):
the quality of something is how good or bad it is; character
This university has a reputation for quality and reliability.
Ride (v):
to travel in a car, train, plane etc, especially as a passenger
She enjoys riding around in her new car.
Sensitive (adj):
/
reacting quickly or strongly to something; susceptible
AST «
Ali takes his work seriously and is sensitive to criticism.
: ayy .
Unconventional (adj):
/ )/ - (
different from what most people consider to be usual or normal; not bound
by the customs of society
«
He has a really unconventional way of life.
: S55) .
Unstable (adj):
21an unstable person becomes angry or upset often and very suddenly;
unsteady
My friend wasn't a bad man, but he was emotionally unstable.
:
Unusual (adj):
)/ / -- (
not normal, common, or ordinary
ple 3
Local residents should contact the police if they notice anything
unusual.
.
:
Key words
Characteristic (n):
Co po ) /( /
some individualistic feature, attribute, etc. that serve to identify and
characterize something
...
What are the characteristics that distinguish the Iranian from the
American
:
Creative thinking (n):
/ (
cognitive processes used to generate useful and novel ideas or solutions
is
Creative thinking occurs when a person combines cognitive processes.
LS
Creativity (n):
) 1( /
the ability to produce something that is both new and valuable
The ability to create new ideas or things is called creativity.
.
:
Emotionally (adv):
22
( )/ /
affected by and expressing strong emotion ,
It is better not to become emotionally involved with clients
.
:
Openness to experience (n):
/ (
the tendency to enjoy and seek out new experience, new places, and new
ideas
Openness to experience can be seen in highly creative people.
: VL) .
Personality (n):
(ley) /
the consistently unique way that each individual behaves over time and in
many different situations
.
Research on test reliability and validity is an important activity of
psychologists.
ly :
Self-confidence (n):
ood )
the feeling that you can do things well and that people respect you; self-
trust
CE
His behavior shows that he has low self-confidence.
:
Trait (n):
- /
any enduring characteristic of a person that can serve an explanatory role in
accounting for the behavior; a disposition to behave consistently in a
particular way; characteristic
«
Some of the personality traits can be measured by questionnaires.
23: .
Visual imagery (n):
(s /( /
visual representations created by the brain after the original stimulus is no
longer present
«
Many successful athletes use visual imagery to improve their performance.
:
Creativity
Creative thinking entails unique cognitive processes. Psychologists who
study the cognitive aspects of creative thought have focused on visual
thinking, fluency, flexibility, and originality. Visual imagery occurs when
we see a solution in our “mind’s eye.” Many scientists, artists, and writers
solve problems by using creative mental images. Finsterin, for example,
often visualized a situation, such as riding in an elevator traveling at the
speed of light.
Sis .
SE « «
. .
« .
« «
Artists / ) /(
)/ / Visualized
Cognitive psychologists display images of letters or geometric shapes and
ask participants to combine some of them in a creative way. The ability to
produce many ideas is central to creative thought. This ability is termed
ideational fluency. Highly creative people usually come up with more ideas
for a given problem than less creative people do. For example, participants
are given a common object such as a brick or a pencil and asked to write
down all the possible uses they can think of for the object within a limited
amount of time.
24
, .
. .
. «
pe oS
.
Ideational Fluency / ) /(
( / Come )/
Creative thinking occurs when a person combines all three cognitive
processes at once- fluency, flexibility, and originality. A creative person
can also come up with many different categories of ideas and think of other
responses besides the obvious one. This ability is called flexibility of
thought. In the Alternate Uses test, flexibility of thought is gauged by the
number of categories of response a person offers. For instance, if all the
answers for the uses of a brick involve building something, the person is
not displaying flexible thinking but remaining within one rather obvious
category.
«
.
WT .
. «
.
AST WT Gb
.
/(
3( Alternate /
( / Beside
A third cognitive process involved in creative thought is originality, which
means thinking of unusual and novel ideas. In the Alternate Uses test, the
test originality is scored by comparing his or her responses to a set
of norms developed from the answers given by thousands of respondents
who have taken the test previously. A person’s answer is scored as original
if it is rare or uncommon compared to the norms.
.
25cl
.
Score / ) ( /
)/ ( / Respondents
Priviously / ) (
Creative people differ from others by their brain activity and cognitive
style. What about their personalities Do creative people tend to have
unique personalities, and if so what personality characteristics tend to be
found in highly creative people To highlight some of the most pronounced
personality traits of creative artists and scientists: Openness to experiences
is the tendency to enjoy and seek out new experiences, new foods, new
places, and new ideas. Highly creative people have this quality, which is
not surprising given that creativity involves novel thoughts and behavior. . »
Ohi fa :
ls « .
.
Seek out / /(
Also, they are unconventional and tend to have a firm belief that they
possess a better way of doing things. In some, this comes off as
selfconfidence and in others as arrogance. Also, artists are more
emotionally sensitive and unstable than scientists.
« WT
.
.
.
Come off / ) /(
Arrogance /
Understanding the Passage
26
Exercise 2.1
1-
Choose the best choice a, b, or d.
. 8,0,0,0
The passage explains .......... .1
.
c. that very few people are creative
d. that creative people are not clever
)
a. features of creativity
b. how to be creative
(2 (© .
(
The word “creative” is closest in meaning to........... .2
)
.... .
» 07621176 »
a. stupid c. clever
b. dreamful d. inventive
©) 8)
Jb (
3. It can be inferred from the passage that highly creative people ........
SUF
a. is usually male
b. produce many solutions for a problem
>. are usually female
d. produce one correct solution only
@(
©)
(d
4. When we see a solution in our "mind's eye" ...........
F) ..
a. we are dreaming ©. visual imagery occurs
b. visual thinking occurs 0. we are thinking
©)
(
.5 Creative people have .......... personalities.
0
()
6( .... 27a. weak b. strong
c. different d. unique
Cans (a
©( Syd
6. Creativity involves........... cognitive processes.
...
a. two b. three
c. four d. five
Aa Y(a
7. Flexibility is process.
7 ( .... (aw
a.
a creative b. an imaginative
¢.
a cognitive d. not
a useful
b)
3 (a
gl See
Vocabulary Exercises
SW
Exercise 2.2
7 1-
Match the terms in column
A with their definitions in column B.
LA 8 .
A
B
1.self- confidence A. the tendency to enjoy and seek out new 2. visual imagery experience, new places, and new ideas 3.creative thinking B. characteristic
4. unusual C. the feeling that you can do things well and 5. originality that
6. novel people respect you
7. trait D. to achieve
a particular result in an activity 8. unstable E. visual representations created by the brain 9. quality after
10. sensitive the original stimulus is no longer present
11.openness to F. to provide something such as
a product or experience service
28
12. offer G. the quality of something is how god or bad it
13. fluency is
H. cognitive processes used to generate useful
and
novel ideas or solutions
L at first
J. an unstable person becomes angry or upset
often
and very suddenly
K. not normal, common, or ordinary
L. reacting quickly or strongly to something
M. new
N. ability to speak smoothly and readily
©. alift in
a building
Exercise 2.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
. .
.
visual imagery, traits, personality, ride, category, quality, offer,
obvious, highlight, creative, characteristics, brick, sensitive, focus
1. New generations of adolescents are .......... to parents’ criticism.
( ..
2. It is not easy to distinguish between
a brain image during .......... and
visual perception.
.
Y) ....
3. In the future parents may be able to predict their children's physical
©
to the wedding in
a carriage.
Creativity experts agree that you can learn to be more . .5
...
6. Certain
..........
traits may be inherited from our parents.
.. ... . (
7. Ali still hasn't .......... an explanation for his absence.
29....
are not the result of single genes. ...
...
9. Using contrasting colors will .......... the shape and dimensions of your
room.
8. Behavior and personality ..
4)
.. .
It was becoming .......... .10 to her parents that she needed help.
. +. (
.11 Do you possess the right personal .......... to be a teacher
12. The teaching of basic mathematics has been a particular .
attention.
LTO
.
of our
OF .
30
Problem Solving
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
(
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study. ) . Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
0529 :
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
(
advantage, break out, carry out, challenge, confront, contrast, convert,
crown, disadvantage, fixation, formula, guarantee, multiply, obstacle,
procedure, suffer, transform
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
Y) :
algorithm, cognition, decision making, evaluate, heuristics, hill
climbing, identify, insight, means- ends analysis, mindset, potential,
problem solving
3, Translate this lesson (problem solving) into Persian.
General words
31Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
« .
Advantage (n):
- /
something that makes one person or thing more likely to succeed than others; profit
«
Living in a big town has many advantages, such as good schools and libraries.
: .
Break out (v): - ) /( /
appear or start suddenly; explode - Sweat was beginning to break out on his forehead,
: .
Carry out (v):
) /( /
to do a particular piece of work, research etc.
«
.
An investigation is being carried out by the police.
:
Challenge (n):
/ ,( /
an action or idea that questions whether something is true, accurate or legal; question
Go «
Are western societies ready to meet the enormous environmental challenges that lie ahead
:
Confront (v):
--
/( / )
to deal with a difficult situation; encounter
32
You need to confront these problems before it is too
.
:
Contrast (n): - ) /( /
a noticeable difference between people and things
JB
There is a contrast between her life before the accident and now.
.
:
Convert (v):
) /( / 2 from one system, use, or method to another; transform to
« «
They converted this college into two colleges.
. :
Crown (n):
/
a circular decoration that a king or queen wears on their head as a symbol
of power
a woman with a crown of wild flower on her head. 1 5817
:
.
Disadvantage (n):
/ /(
something that makes someone or something less effective, successful, or
attractive; drawback
We should discuss the advantages and disadvantages of living abroad.
:
Fixation (n):
) / /
a very strong interest in something that prevents you from paying attention
to anything else
,
Fixation is an important variable in psychoanalysis approach.
33: .
Formula (n):
)/
/
- a plan or method for dealing with
a problem or achieving
a result
There is no magic formula for economic success.
: .
Guarantee (v):
/ )/ ( -
to make it certain that something will happen or exist
Freedom of speech is guaranteed by our vice chancellor.
: .
Multiply (v):
( / )/ -
to add
a number to itself
a particular number of times
If you multiply
5 by 5, you get 25.
YO . #*
Obstacle (n):
gil /
2 ly or problem that prevents you from achievement something;
urdle
Disabled people succeed in overcoming many obstacles in everyday life.
: .
Procedure (n):
-
( /( /
a way of doing something, especially the correct or usual way; process
Companies use
a variety of testing procedures to select appropriate
employees.
: .
Suffer (v):
/ Pd -
34
to feel pain in your body or your mind; endure »
When parents argue constantly, it's the children who suffer most.
« . :
/ :(Transform (v
to make someone or something completely different, usually in
a way that
makes them more attractive, easier to use etc. »
;
/
Emails have transformed the way people communicate.
. :
Key words
Algorithm (n):
/ )/ (
computational procedures providing
a specified set of steps to
a solution
Algorithm is
a procedure or method that always produces the correct
solution.
.
Cognition (n): (AS)
mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and strong knowledge
. «
Cognition has an important key role in some psychological theories.
. :
Decision making (n):
the process of choosing
Complex decision making is influenced by the number of options to be
considered.
5,8
:
Evaluate (v):
35/
to think carefully about something before making a judgment about its
value; assess
The study will evaluate the long-term effects of the punishment.
: .
Heuristics (n):
/( / )
mental shortcuts; methods for making complex and uncertain decisions and
judgment
«
Heuristics allow us to come to quick and efficient decisions.
: .
Hill climbing (n):
Hill claiming is a metaphor for problem solving in the dark.
:
Identify (v):
)/ / (
to recognize something and understand exactly what it is
Several key problems have been already identified at university.
:
Insight (n):
)/ / (
the experience of suddenly realizing how to solve a problem; wisdom
AS
The research should provide valuable insight into the nature of this social problem.
: .
Means-ends analysis (n):
-
36
a heuristic for solving problem based on noting the difference between a
current and a goal state, and creating a sub-goal to overcome this
difference
People very often use means-ends analysis when solving well-defined
problems.
: .
Mindset (n):
/ )/ (
a way thinking about things
The company will have to change its whole mindset if it is to survive.
. :
Potential (adj):
- co
possible or likely in the future
‘We can predict a potential disaster.
: .
Problem solving (n):
)/ / Cg
the processes involved in the solution of a problem
Algorithms and heuristics are two important strategies for problem solving.
. :
Problem Solving
None of us goes through a day without having to solve a problem, because
every time we face a task that we do not know how to carry out, we are
confronted with a problem. The challenges we face in our everyday lives
require us to engage in thinking. Thinking takes many forms. Two of the
most important forms are problem solving and decision making.
. tle ) ( «
37. .
.
OT - Require / ) /(
Psychologists have examined how people go about solving problems, often
by presenting research participants with problems and studying how they
solve them. Take a few minutes to work on each of the following
problems. Some are easy and others not so easy but give them a try.
.
.
Problem solving is a cognitive processing directed at transforming a given
situation into a goal situation when no obvious method of solution is
available to the problem solver. Problem solving proceeds through several
steps : (1) understanding the nature of the problem, (2) establishing initial
hypotheses or potential solutions, (3) testing the solutions against existing
evidence, and (4) evaluating the results of these its.
.
oly
: (OF) )1( (1)
(F) OF
)6031/7
Available /
( / Initial
- /( - (./ /( Proceed People use different kinds of strategies to solve problems. Heuristics are general problem-solving strategies that we apply to certain classes of situations. Means-ends analysis is one example of a heuristic. In means- ends analysis, we identify differences between the present situation and the desired state, or goal, and then make changes that will reduce these differences. Another important heuristic is hill climbing. Hill climbing involves changing the present state within the problem into one that is closer to the goal or problem solution. . - . - . 38
.
.
.
Heuristics have the advantage that they don't require extensive information
processing. However, they suffer from the disadvantage that they aren't
guaranteed to produce the problem solution. In contrast to heuristics,
algorithms are formulas or procedures that automatically generate correct
solutions. Mathematical and chemical formulas are algorithms. For
example, the formula used to convert temperatures from Celsius to
Fahrenheit (multiply C by 9/5, then add 32) is an algorithm. Algorithms
have the advantage that you are guaranteed to solve the problem if they are
used correctly.
.
oly . «
.
. «
. .
Extensive / ) /(
/ Temperature
However, they have the disadvantage that we often lack the processing
capacity to use them properly. Not all solutions involve algorithms. Some
occur with a flash of insight. One of the best-known examples of insight
occurred in ancient Greece, when the philosopher-scientist Archimedes
solved the problem of how to determine whether a crown contained
anything besides gold. The solution came to him in a flash when he saw the
water level rise as he entered the public baths.
.
. ST .
-
.
oly
OT .
Capacity / ) /(
Properly / ) J»
/ )
/(
-
39Ancient / (esl) /
People use different kinds of strategies to solve problems. Some of the
common obstacles we face in solving all kinds of problems are fixation, or
inability to break out of a particular mindset in order to think about a
problem from a fresh perspective and functional fixedness, which is the
tendency to be blind to unusual uses of common everyday things or
procedures.
.
.
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 3.1
-
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢or d.
oles 8,0,0,0
1. The passage explains ...........
) ....
a. decision making ¢. heuristic
b. the process of solving problems d. algorithms
( (
( (
The word “strategy” is closest in meaning )0.......... . .2
¥( » 507816837 »
a. processing c. evaluation
b. d. problem
( (
40
WA
3. It can be inferred from the passage that problem solving and decision
‘making ...........
a. are also seen among animals
b. are limited to students only
>. are not important in everyday life
0. are two forms of thinking
(
( .
z
( .
.4 When we face a problem, we engage in .
(F
a. challenging >. talking about it
b. information-processing d. thinking
( (
( (
.5 There are
.......... steps to problem-solving.
. .. .
a. two b. three
.> four d. five
50 ve @
6. Which of the following is considered a step in problem solving
(
a. understanding the nature of problem
b. thinking about a strategy
c. finding suitable algorithms
d. fixation /
( '
(
(
(
TH are used correctly, you will solve the problem.
41Sv .
a. heuristics >. algorithms
b. means-ends analysis d. hill-ciimbing
won (
(
,
(
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 3.2
7-
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
8 8 .
A B
1. confront A. the process of choosing
2. break out B. mental processes involved in acquiring, processing,
3. convert and strong knowledge
4. contrast C. the processes involved in the solution of a problem
5. suffer D. appear or start suddenly
6. evaluate E. a way thinking about things
7. multiply F. to think carefully about something before making a
8. formula judgment about its value
9. cognition G. to do a particular piece of work, research etc.
10. identify H. a noticeable difference between people and things
11. carry out 1. to add a number to itself a particular number of
12. mindset times
13.decision J. to deal with a difficult situation
making K. to recognize something and understand exactly
what
itis
L. to change from one system, use, or method to
another
42
M. the experience of suddenly realizing how to solve a
problem
N. a plan or method for dealing with a problem or
achieving a result
0. to feel pain in your body or your mind
Exercise 3.3
1-7
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
. . problem solving, heuristics, cognition, algorithm, transform,
procedure, insight, advantage, contrast, identify, decision making,
suffer, obstacle, fixation, disadvantage, carry out
1. Children can sometimes show remarkable .......... in their behaviors.
( .
2. Conscious thought has been found to be superior to unconscious thought
on simple tasks.
( ..
3. These patients are .......... from Alzheimer's disease.
A sh ... (F
4. Children can be .......... as poor readers as early as age four.
F) .. SIF) :
5. Apparently the way we were treated is standard ................ in the
department. ) . .... 6. We are teaching . schemas at the university.
#( .. .. re
7. They have .......... the old house into a bus station.
TY ..
8. Most psychologists have used . to refer to any class of mental
behaviors.
.
are shortcuts that we use in making judgment.
43.
10. Anyone not familiar with Internet is at a serious
..
(
.
is not always practical.
.
11. Using a (an) ..
)1( . .... FUSS
All major .......... .12 to peace have now been removed.
.
.... ... 13. Freud proposed the concept of ......... .during human development.
OF .
14. Having children when you are older has both and
disadvantages.
(IF . .44
Decision Making
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
1(
sl
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
13,5059
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
argue, avoid, consequence, desired, dimension, expert, explosion,
financial, fortune, gamble, insurance, loss, lottery, maximize,
minimize, occurrence, option, previous, relevant, risk, strive,
uncertainty
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
1) :
academic, approach, attribute, implication, merit, probability,
prospect, utility, value
3. Translate this lesson (decision making) into Persian.
(YF
45Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
.
General words
Argue (v):
/ = ETI
if people argue, they speak to each other in an angry way because they disagree; discuss
«
The program gives people a chance to argue their ideas.
: .
Avoid (v): - /
to try to prevent something from happening
1 want to avoid speaking to him until I have got more details.
: .
Consequence (n):
/ - /(
2 or effect of something; outcome
«
He told his idea, without fear of the consequences.
.
:
Desired (adj):
/
used about things that people want to have or achieve
It was clear that the researches were not having the desired effect.
: .
Dimension (n):
46
— /
a part of a situation, especially when it influences the way you think about
the situation
.
Doing voluntary work has added a new dimension to my life.
: .
Expert (n):
/ )/ (
someone who has a particular skill or knows a lot about a particular
subject; professional
He is an expert in the field of social psychology.
:
Explosion (n):
)/ / = (
a very large increase in the size, amount, or importance of something over
a very short period of time; outburst
« 058
We had seen the explosion in oil price last year.
: .
Financial (adj): ) /(
involving money
‘We offer a range of financial services in our factory.
: .
Fortune (n):
/ )/ (
a very large amount of money; wealth
«
Hassan has inherited a considerable personal fortune from his uncle.
: ad
/ - /) :(Gamble (n
an action or plan that involves risks but will bring important benefits if it is
successful
47.
They may be taking a gamble on a young player by paying him so much.
:
) (
.
Insurance (n):
/ ( /
an arrangement in which you regularly pay an insurance company an amount of money so that they will give you money if something you own is damaged, lost, or stolen
tbs
.
They provide free insurance against loss or damage up to 1 million Toman.
. :
Loss (n):
/ )/ (
the state of no longer having something because it has been taken from you or destroy; misplacement
Sal
One of the important problems for everybody is loss of prestige.
: .
Lottery (n): - ) /( /
a game designed to raise money by selling lottery ticket that people buy hoping that their numbers are chosen by chance in the draw so that they win a money prize
Some people think that marriage is lottery.
.
Maximize (v):
() / /
to make something as large as possible; magnify
«
We suggest you maximize the screen before completing the form.
48
.
Minimize (v):
( )/ /
to reduce something harmful and unpleasant to the smallest amount or
degree; diminish
You should minimize the damage to innocent patients.
: .
Occurrence (n): .
/ Com STI
something that happens, especially something unexpected and unpleasant;
event
Sul
The result of test shows an increase in the occurrence of skin cancer.
.
Option (n):
(Js = / )/ (
something that you can choose in a particular situation
We have discussed all the family options and decided to trip.
: .
Previous (adj):
/ - (
coming earlier in time or order; preceding
: «
I regret that a previous engagement prevents me from accepting your invitation,
: .
Relevant (adj):
)/ / - (
important and directly connected to what is being discussed or considered
Once we have all the relevant information, we can make a correct decision.
49« .
Risk (n):
/ -
the possibility that something unpleasant or dangerous might happen;
hazard
«
There is no risk that the virus can be transferred from patient to doctor.
:
Strive (v): /
to make a lot of effort to achieving something; attempt
«
Women were striving for more freedom in the society.
: ) ( .
Uncertainty (n):
) /( /
the fact that something is not known or has not been decided
There is uncertainty as to how this research can be used.
.
:
Key words
Academic (adj): - ) /( /
relating to education, especially education in colleges and universities;
scholastic
We can compare academic achievement of high school students.
: .
Approach (n):
)/ / - (
a particular way of thinking about or dealing with something
50
Behaviorism is an approach that emphasizes environmental control of
behavior through learning. . :
Attribute (n):
1
( / )/
a quality or feature of someone or something; character
Most theorists assume that attribute preferences don't change over time. . :
Implication (n):
/ - /
a possible effect or result Sen HL and
Implication of Gardner's theory is not clear in educational system.
.
Merit (n):
;
/
an advantage or good quality that something has; excellence
#
Your suggestions have some merits but there are better ways.
) / / ( :(Probability (n
the likelihood of event
When people make decisions, they attach more weight to lowprobability
events.
51ob
Prospect (n):
)/ - 7 (
the possibility that something will happen, especially something good
«
Doctors say there is little prospect of any improvement in his condition.
:
Utility (n):
/ = / CAE
the subjective desirability of a given outcome in decision making; the state
of being useful; advantage
Utility theory claimed that people try to maximize utility, which is the
subjective value we attach on outcome.
) ( :
.
Value (n): = / ) /(
the quality or property of a thing that makes it useful, or desired; worth
»
Assumptions concerning good or bad, right or wrong are values. . » :
Decision Making
Life is full (sometimes too full!) of decisions. Which movie will go to see
tonight Would rather go with Ali or Javad Which subject will I study at
university Who will I share an apartment with next year Barry Schwarts,
52
an American expert on decision making, believes we live in a society in
which decision making is rapidly becoming more difficult because of an
explosion in the choices available to us.
.
.
Movie / ) /(
)/ ( Shares
( / Rapidly
How do we decide how good a decision is That sounds like a strange
question, but it has important implications. Most people argue that what
really matters is the outcome-did the decision lead to the desired
consequences However, many experts argue that most decisions are like
gambling in that they are made under uncertainty. All of us strive to
achieve (e.g., emotional; financial; academic success) while avoiding
losses. You would probably argue that we make decisions so as to
maximize the chances of making a gain and minimize the chances of
making a loss.
. OS
) » ( San.
. : . , .
( / Strange I
/ Gain
When people make decisions, they attach more weight to lowprobability
events than they merit according to their actual probability of occurrence.
53In contrast, high probability events receive less weight than they deserve.
This helps to explain the human tendency for risk seeking with gains (e.g.,
gambling on remote events such as winning a fortune on the lottery) and
for risk avoidance with losses (e.g., buying insurance).
+
.
.
.
/) Contrast / (cu
Prospect theory can be contrasted with previous theoretical views based on
the notion of “rational man” (or “rational person”). According to this
approach, we work systematically through the available evidence and make
the decision most likely to produce a desirable outcome. This notion is
found in normative theories, which focus on how people should make
decision rather than on how they actually make them.
» . . . So far we have mainly considered decision making applied to fairly simple
problems. In real life, however, we sometimes have to make very complex
decisions (e.g., Shall I marry John) Shall I move to Australia). How do
we approach such decisions According to multi- attribute utility theory
(Wright, 1984), the decision maker should go through the following stages:
tr Sd . AE ( LT ) UT)
: ) 1488 ( . (
1. Identity dimensions relevant to the decision.
2. Decide how to weight those dimensions.
3. Obtain a total utility (i.e., subjective desirability) for each option by
summing its weighted dimensional values.
4. Select the option with the highest weighted total.
54
)
)
)
)
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 4.1
-
Choose the best choice a, b, c or d.
1. The passage explains ..
a. subjective and objective decisions
b. whether animal can think
>. the notion of rational man
d. details of decision-making
)
) LT
)
(
2. The word “rational” is closest in meaning to
a. option J c. stupid
b. reasonable d. not logic
..
Y) «
55) of )
3.1: can be inferred from the passage that .......... 1
..
”(
a. decision-making becomes more difficult 9
b. only men make rational decisions
>. we rarely make a decision in life
d. decision-making is very easy
(
( .
( .
. (
4. When we are gambling ..
© )
a. we are avoiding risk for losses
b. we are not mindful of the risk
©. we are seeking risk with
d. we are free of stress
(
. )
( .
.
(
5. Under the multi-utility theory, there are stages to decisionmaking.
( we ...... .
a. three b. four Vv“ c. five d. six
56
og Flo
6. Which ofthe following would be considered a risk
5
(
a, gambling 1
b. decision-making
>. buying insurance
d. multi-attitude utility theory
)
)
7 (
)
Normative theories focus on ............ .7
) ...
a. how people should make decisions
b. how people actually make decisions
the quality of decision-making .>
d. the number of decisions made
)
)
) Eis
)
8
57Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 4.2
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
B A
.
B
A. the subjective desirability of a given outcome in
decision making
B. used about thins that people want to have or
achieve
C. to make something as large as possible
D. the possibility that something will happen
E. a part of a situation
F. a result or effect of something
G. the likelihood of event
H. a quality or feature of someone or something
1. to try to prevent something from happening
J. something that you can choose in a particular
situation
K. coming earlier in time or order
L. the possibility that something unpleasant or
dangerous might happen
M. relating to education
N. a possible effect or result
0. to make a lot of effort to achieving something
58
A
1. prospect
2. probability
3. avoid
4. strive
5. academic
6. implication
7. consequence
8. attribute
9. utility
10. risk
11. option
12. previous
13. desired
Exercise 4.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
values, utility, arguing, probability, implication, attributes,
approach, lottery, risk, relevant, academic, loss, previous,
occurrence, minimize, maximize
.
to human behavior in psycholégy.
1. We need a fresh .
2. Regular reading and writing can improve .......... performance.
( Shes
. .
3. of developing lung cancer from smoking is a serious one.
.
Your thesis focused on the fundamental of education. .4
) . High .. events receive less weight than they deserve. .5
..(
...
.
This issue was explained in the .......... chapter. .6
) © £9898 nn
188 all the .......... of a psychologist. .7
. .
profits over the next year. .8 1376 .........
.
...
9.1000 .......... your role in the competition.
.....
not 10.118 .......... and you have to ignore it.
59. ...
11. Tests have proved the .......... of this material.
12. Unfortunately, computer errors are a common
...
..
)
13. The findings of current researches have some ..
+
...
.
for teachers.
(
14. They are still .......... over the details of the program.
AF) OT . ...
60
Motivation
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
(
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
) . Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
0508 :
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
accomplish, alleviate, biological, bond, compel, contribute,
deficiency, deplete, energetic, essence, exploratory, freedom,
fundamental, inherently, involve, lucky, model, necessity, optimal,
propose, satisfy, training
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
( OW
adaptive, autonomy, competence, demonstrate, deprivation, drive,
evolutionary, hallucination, hierarchy of needs, homeostasis,
humanistic theory, incentive, = motivation, need, relatedness,
selfactualization,
61self-determination theory, tension
3. Translate this lesson (motivation) into Persian. "©
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
.
«
General words
/ )/ ( :(Accomplish (v
to success in doing something, especially something that you have been
trying to do for a period of time; achieve
We didn't accomplish much at research work this week.
.
:
/ )/ ( :(Alleviate (v
to make something less painful, severe, or serious. »
The doctor has prescribed some drugs to alleviate the pain.
.
:
/ )/ ( :(Biological (adj
relating to living things
The universities need to build a biological libratory.
62
)/ / ( :(Bond (n . :
something that gives people or groups a reason to love one another or feel
they have a duty to one another
We will work to strengthen our bonds with neighboring cultures.
:
/ )/ - ( :(Compel (v
to force someone to do something, or to get something from someone using
force; oblige
BS
Situations often compel our behavior.
: LE
Contribute (v):
/ )/ (
to be a part of a group or an activity and help it to be successful 03
He felt he had nothing to contribute to the discussion.
.
:
Deficiency (n): ) - = /( /
a lack of something that your body needs
.
Some researches showed that amnesia caused by iron deficiency.
63vg :
/ )/ ( - :(Deplete (v
to reduce the amount of something or the number impoverish
«
Wars in the Africa have depleted the country's food supplies.
.
.
Energetic (adj):
/ - /) Sr)
an energetic person has a lot of energy and is very active .
Your energetic movements show that you have high motivation.
:
Essence (n):
= / = -
the most important part of something, usually the part that gives it its
general character; essentiality
»
The essence of their argument is that life cannot be explained by science.
.
:
Exploratory (adj): ) Chat
done in order to learn more about something
The doctor explained the need for exploratory surgery.
64
)/ / ( :(Freedom (n . :
The rights to do what you want, make your own decisions, and express
your own opinions; liberty
» »
Permissive parents give adolescents total freedom to do whatever they like.
: ig .
Fundamental (adj):
/ - /
relating to the basic nature or character of something
We have to make some fundamental changes in the way we do treatment. 2 Ly ©
Inherently (adv): (Ep /( /
an inherent quality is a basic or essential feature that gives something its
character
Politics is an inherently risky career.
.
:
Involve (v):
( )/ / --
to include something as a necessary part of an activity, event, or situation;
contain
» »
65Most research and development projects involve some element of risk. . :
Lucky (adj):
(SY)
if you are lucky, something good happens to you as a result of luck . tnt »
You are really lucky to be alive after accident. . :
Model (n):
dem (/
a simple technical description of how something works
Present chapter proposed several models for the motivation. . :
Necessity (n):
/ )/ - (
something that you must have in order to live, works, or does something;
need
» »
Students have to drink basic necessities like milk and bread at school.
BEE .
Optimal (adj):
/ ) (
best or most suitable within a range of possibilities
On the basis of psychoanalysis, catharsis provides the optimal conditions
for treatment.
66
/ )/ ( (: Propose . :
to suggest a plan, idea, or action; pose » »
She proposed that we see a marriage counselor.
: el
Satisfy (v):
- / )/ (
to please someone by giving them something they want or need
.
Nothing satisfies him; he is always complaining.
.
:
)/ - / ( :(Training (n
the process of training people or being trained for a profession or activity;
education; teaching
» » EA
The university provided vocational training for psychologists and
counselors.
:
Key words
Adaptive (adj):
(Cool
67adjustment to and coping with everyday life
53
All species face some common adaptive challenges.
: .
Autonomy (n):
/ )/ « (
the need to determine, control, and organize one's own behavior and goals
«
In a supportive social, psychological, and physical environment, an
individual tends to satisfy this psychological need.
: . Competence (n):
/ )/ - (
the need to effectively learn and master appropriately challenging tasks;
capability
45
Competence and academic motivation are important psychological
motives. . Demonstrate (v):
ess) / /
to show clearly that something is true or that is exist
.
Hundreds of studies have demonstrated that achievement motivation
correlates with academic achievement.
: . Deprivation (n):
68
(a3
a situation in which you do not have something that you need or want;
privation
OT
She was beginning to show symptoms of sleep deprivation.
) ( . :
Drive (n):
/ M
the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in
some need, creating an urge to relieve the tension
Hull, a learning theorist, proposed that reducing drives is the ultimate goal
of motivated behavior.
:
.
Evolutionary (adj):
)/ / (
connected with the theory of evaluation (types of plans and animals change
gradually over long periods of time)
( LS
6
Evolutionary theory proposed that all animals and humans want those
things that help them survive and reproduce.
: . Hallucination (n): 1( /
69convincing sensory experiences that occur in the absence of an external
stimulus; the experience of seeing or hearing something that is not really
there
.
Hallucination is the result of an illness or the effect of drugs.
: .
Hierarchy of needs (n):
/ / ) (
Maslow's hierarchical division of motivation into levels that progress from
basic physical needs to self-fulfillment needs . The lowest levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs emphasize fundamental
biological and safety needs.
. :
Homeostasis (n):
) ( / /
a state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to
maintain
OF
Your body's internal environment is regulated by homeostasis mechanisms.
. :
Humanistic theory (n):
/ / ) (
a theory of psychology that focuses on personal growth and meaning as a
way of reaching one's highest potential
70
The focus of the humanistic theory is on people's conscious experiences
and perceptions.
3
.
:
Incentive (n): 5 ) /
any external object or event that motivates behavior
.
Incentives represent environmental stimuli that pull an organism towards a
goal. : Motivation (n):
/
the urge to move toward one's goals; to accomplish tasks; stimulus
oS LS nt
Individual differences in motivation are ignored. _
: . Need (n): pt
inherently biological states of deficiency (cellular or bodily) that compel
drive; demand; requirement »
According to Maslow, there are general types of needs. . :
Relatedness (n):
.)/ / (
the need to feel attached to others and experience a sense of belongingness
and intimacy
71The need for relatedness promotes 1650 i nec urce sharing, mutual protecti
the division of work. 5
.
: «
Self-actualization (n):
/( / ;
the need to discover and fulfill one's own potential
To Maslow, self-actualization is the ultimate human motive.
» :
Self-determination theory (n):
) /( /
focuses on three fundamental i psychological needs: competence, autor
and relatedness 7
: «
Self-determination theory repres 1 presents a new model for the broad con
self-actualization.
: . Tension (n):
/ /(7
the feeling of being so nervous or worried that you cannot relax; stress; 5 5
» »
Some patients show nervous tension, depression, and insomnia.
pel :
Motivation
Motivation can be defined as the urge to move toward one’s goals.
:
. 1: whatever they may be. Motivation gives us an energetic push toward
72
accomplishing tasks, such as getting dinner, getting rich, and getting
lucky.
.
+ 63( «
.
urge
Needs, drives, and incentives all contribute to motivation. Needs
are states of cellular or bodily deficiency that compel drives. They are
inherently biological. Examples include the needs for water, food, and
oxygen. Drives are the perceived states of tension that occur when our
bodies are deficient in some need. Such a deficiency creates a drive (thirst
or hunger) to alleviate the state- to drink or eat. » SS . .
,
. SWS ans
( )
.
)/ (
An incentive is any external object or event that motivates behavior. In
general, drives come from the body, whereas incentives come from the
environment. For some people, money is a primary incentive, but for others
winning a gold medal at the Olympics or getting college diploma might be
the main incentive behind their training or studying. Psychologists propose
many models, or explanations, for motivation. Some models of motivation
focus more on internal drives, some more on external incentives, and
others on both. Let's look at some motivational models.
» . .
.
>
AE . .Cellular / ) /(
)/ ( / Whereas
Evolutionary theory looks at internal drives to explain why people do what they do. Desires, wants, and needs have been shaped over the course of
human evolution to guide behavior either toward adaptive or away form maladaptive actions.
AS
Desires ) (/ Ja
)/ ( / Evolution
/ Guide
Other psychologists argue that when our physiological systems are out of
balance or depleted, we are driven to reduce this depleted state. That's
what drive is-the perceived internal state of tension that
arises when our bodies are lacking in some basic physiological capacity. Central to drive reduction is the idea of maintaining physiological balance,
or homeostasis.
.
» . .
Driven / ) /( oly
Another model of motivation proposes that we function best at an “optimal level of arousal.” The optimal arousal model of motivation argues that humans are motivated to be in situations that are neither too stimulating nor not stimulating enough. We know this, for instance, from research on
sensory deprivation. Sensorydeprivation research involves having a person lie down on a bed or ina sensory deprivation tank. Classic research from
74
the, 1950s tht, pele ube tht
i in the tank. After long periods of
their cognitive ability and
childish iss
lye £03) 2
9 5
. .
.
1400 ans
.
1
5 Lil
/) ) . .
SS (
/ )
(© V3 jas
/
) /(
Another model of motivation, which combines drives and
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The essence of Maslow’s hierarchy i iologi iti the
is simple: Needs range from the most basic physiological necessities to
highest, most psychological needs for and
i
i i as . ¢ f the hierarchy are physiological needs, suc
wily oxygen, and adequate body temperature. top St lization. Maslow - ierarchy is the need for self actual ;
as the full realization of one’s potentials and abilities in life.
Only when lowerlevel needs have been satisfied can people focus on
higher-level needs.
75. :
. . OT
.
. . Combine / ) ( / - Adequate / ) /(
/ / 1617001631016
A more recent humanistic theory of motivation has been advanced by
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. Self-determination theory focuses on three
fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy and relatedness.
People are most fulfilled in their lives when they are able to satisfy these
fundamental needs. Competence motivation reflects a human need to
master new challenges and to perfect skills. This need motivates much
exploratory and growth-including human behavior. . . »
. Sls
.
.
/ ) /( Advance
(
The need for autonomy represents an attempt to achieve greaterfreedom
and regulation by the self, rather than by external forces. The third basic
need, relatedness, refers to the self’s desire to formmeaningful bonds with
others.
76 . . /( Regulation / ) Understanding the Passage Exercise 5.1 1- Choose the best choice a, b, . 1. The passage explains .......... . . ) a. differences between drives and needs b. drives in animals >. how to build motivations models .0 motivation in details ) )) ) 2. The word “motivation” is closest in meaning to ...........motivation » sas ) ... » a. provocation b. pleasing b. make angry d. drive ) ) ) ) 773. It can be inferred from the passage that needs and drives are
...,
but incentives are
)
.....
are
. seen in humans/not a. external/internal
b. internal/external d. are seen in animals/not
/ ) / )
/ ( / (
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs combines .......... .4
) ....
©. drives and incentive:
d. different drives
(
a. needs and incentives
b. needs and drives
)
( (
5. The full realization of one's potentials and abilities is called. .
0( .
c. self-examination
d. self-actualization
) (
a. self-determination
b. self-expression
) )
Which of the following would be considered a part of motivation .6
)
a. needs c. incentives
b. drives d. all the above<
( Wj (
( (
7. Any external object or event that motivates behavior is
78
CY
a. an energy source c. aneed
b. aincentive d.adrive
( (
( (
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 5.2
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column 3.
A 8
A B
1. incentive A. the need to feel attached to others
2. satisfy B. the urge to move toward one's goals; to
3. demonstrate accomplish tasks
4. adaptive C. convincing sensory experiences that occur in
5. propose the absence of an external stimulus
6. optimal D. the need to effectively learn and master
7. need appropriately challenging tasks
8. motivation E. best or most suitable within a range of
9. exploratory possibilities
10. relatedness F. any external object or event that motivates
11. involve behavior
12. hallucination G. to please someone by giving them something
13. competence they want or need
H. adjustment to and coping with everyday life
I. inherently biological states of deficiency
J. done in order to learn more about something
K. to show clearly that something is true or that is
exist
L. to suggest a plan, idea, or action
M. an energetic person has a lot of energy
N. relating to the basic nature
0. to include something
79Exercise 5.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
. .
.
tension, self-determination, self-actualization, motivation, incentive,
hallucination, deprivation, demonstrate, training, satisfy, accomplish,
involving, difference, freedom, deficiency, energetic
1: motivates us to perfect ourselves mentally, artistically,
emotionally and socially.
» 0
.
2. Deci and Reyan's .......... theory emphasizes the importance of
three fundamental needs in maximizing human potential.
....
impossible to .......... all students.
.... .
4. There are some fundamental
..........
in attitude between us. . ) ....
5. Most .. . theorists assume that motivation is involved in the
performance of all learned responses.
)
6. It is crazy to make these changes without .
.. .
80
the teachers.
# ( ..
: =~
7. An experiment intended to the importance’ of family
( .relationships
.. ....
.
under the new laws. 8. Newspapers now enjoy much greater .
A)
.
9. Counseling is a difficult a requirement skill and .. )
10. There is no aracial ......... in the society.
.
6315 ) )
11. The interview showed that the patient has auditory
.
)
12. It is difficult to tolerate sensory . for a long time.
.
VY) .... ..
13. We want to give people .......... to use public transport. 07
.
of food.
... ) 14. Some children are suffering from a (an) ..
.
81
Emotion
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning. . )
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
Coan . Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
add, bland, broaden, chance, contentment, describe, despite, disgust,
expression, feature, flee, form, foster, increase, innate, intimate, joy,
newborn, shame, survival, tendency, ugly
( :
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
(Y
cross-cultural, depression, distress, eliciting stimuli, emotion, evoke,
mood, perception, recognize, self- regulation, sex differences, threat,
unhappy
3. Translate this lesson (emotion) into Persian.
82
OF
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
« .
General words
Add (v):
/
put something with another thing or group of things; sum
They have added two major companies to their list of clients.
.
:
Bland (adj): - ) /(
not interesting, or exciting; featureless; uninteresting
0353
She had pleasant but rather bland features.
: ROW
Broaden (v):
/
to become wider; to make something include more things or people
The street broadened into a square.
.
:
Chance (n):
83/ - an opportunity for you to do something, especially somethi want to do
We work together whenever we get a chance.
( ) .
Contentment (n):
/( /
the happiness you
your
feel when you have everything you want and you enjoy life
lo
He has found contentment and satisfaction in his work,
:
Describe (v):
)/ /
to give details about what someone or something is like
.
1 don’t think that is the word to describe my feelings.
: lh .
Despite (prep):
/(
have
used
prevented
for saying that something happens even though something else might it; against
wil «
ON
He still likes her brother, despite the fact that he left him.
:
Disgust (n): ,
= / )/ (
a very strong feeling of not liking something; the feeling that you are going to be physically ill that you get when you see, smell, or taste something
very unpleasant
» . The idea of eating meat feels me with disgust. . :
Expression (n):
/ )/ - - (
the act of showing what your thoughts or feelings are by your behavior
The expression of anger through violence is a dangerous behavior.
: .
Feature (n):
- / (Cod
an important part or aspect of something; quality
«
Each room has its own distinctive features.
: .
Flee (v):
)/ / - (
to escape from dangerous situation or place very quickly
Earthquake victims have been forced to flee their homes.
:
85Form (v):
( )/ /
to make something exist or develop; construct
«
A plan began to form in her mind.
: .
Foster (v):
/
to help something to develop over a period of time; nurture
«
This approach will foster an understanding of environmental issues. . :
Increase (v):
)/ / (
to become larger in amount or number; enlarge
Our costs increased dramatically over the last decade.
:
Innate (adj):
)/ /
in one's nature; possessed from birth; inborn
«
Innate factors and learning play important roles in determining the arousal
properties of stimuli.
: SSN + Intimate (adj):
86
close to some body; closely connected
ig
«
Only intimate friends were invited to their weeding.
.
:
) )3(
a feeling of great happiness; pleasure
5
There were tears of joy in her eyes. :
.
Newborn (adj): - 1355
cently born; infant
*
« Jib
Newborn babies mimic the facial expression of adults. . :
Shame (n): 1 1 ”
a reason for feeling sad or disappointed
He speaks about it openly and without shame.
: . 1
Survival (n): ll
the fact or state of continuing to live or exist
In these jungle areas, everyday is a fight for survival.
87. :
Tendency (n): - V1 /
a strong chance that something will happen in a particular way; leaning
«
There is a tendency for a new manager to make changes
: .
Ugly (adj):
someone who is ugly has a face that is unpleasant to look at
.
He won't wear T-shirts because he thinks his arms are ugly.
: gy
Key words
Cross- cultural (n):
/ )/ (
the branch of f research that 0 studi es the effects of cululture on beh: ior and
8
Similarities and differences across cultures are studied within cross cultural
:
Depression (n):
/(
a mood state characterized by a sense of inadequacy, a decrease se in in activit Ys
88
AS »
Life events often play an important role in depression. . :
Distress (n): ) /( /
a feeling that you have when you are very unhappy, worried, or upset
«
I wouldn't want to cause her any distress.
.
:
Eliciting stimuli (n): /( / )
trigger cognitive appraisals and emotional response
Eliciting stimuli can be internal stimuli, such as a mental image of an
upcoming holiday that makes us feel happy. :
.
Emotion (n): Cogn] /
brief, acute changes in conscious experience and physiology that occur in
response to a personally meaningful situation
Sy
.
Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than
judgments are essential to emotions. :
Evoke (v):
89)/ ( - /
to bring a particular emotion, idea, or memory into your mind
Mental processes can evoke emotional responses. A
Mood (n):
/( / )
affective states that operate in the background of consciousness and tend to last longer than most emotions
Moods differ from simple emotions in that the: y are less specific and less intense.
: .
Perception (n):
)/ /
a psychological process: the act of organizing and interpreting sensory experience; apprehension
Perception consists of the ways in which the brain interprets the sensations registered upon our senses mechanisms by stimuli,
:
Slo . Recognize (v):
/( /
to accept that something is true or important
.
In order to recognize and to recall, we must perceive.
90
: rel
ell Self-regulation /( (n):
iti 1 and regulate one's own using one's own cognitive processes to control 2
behavior and goals
There is empirical support for the predicted positive effects of
selfregulation on performance.
.
:
/ Com az /(
those differences that are statistically distributed in the pepo and they
can be used as distinguishing features between males an
.
Most studies have found sex differences in adult depression rate.
: 2S 7 = : . Threat (n): (54 036
gesture or response that indicates an intention to attack, or harm any action,
» y :
Officials were confident there had been no threat to public
: ) (
/ Unhappy ) /( (adj):
ing sad or upset; not satisfied
«
91I'am unhappy with some of the methods being used.
:
Emotion
Life without emotion would be bland and empty. Our experiences of love, anger, joy, fear and other emotions energize and add color to our
lives. Emotions are feeling (or affect) states that involve a pattern of cognitive, physiological and behavioral reactions to events. . » »
.
6
/ Empty )/ (
Fear/(,3)/
/ Energize (
Emotions have important adaptive functions. Some emotions, such as fear and alarm, are part of an emergency arousal system that increases our
chances of survival, as when we fight or flee when confronted by threat or danger. But positive emotions, such as interest, joy, excitement, contentment and love, also have important adaptive functions. They help us form intimate relationships and broaden our thinking and behavior so that
we explore, consider new ideas, try out new ways to achieve goals, play and savour what we have. . »
Sen . » » »
. Ws Shes
.
-- /) ) / Emergency
92
Excitement / )
/ ) ( /
Emotions are also an important form of social communication. By
providing clues about our internal states and intentions, emotions influence
how other people behave towards us. Adults’ expressions of sadness and
distress also evoke concern, empathy and helping
behavior from others.
.
.
»
Clue / ) /(
Empathy / ( /
Positive emotions are an important part of life satisfaction, and negative
emotions foster unhappiness. Negative emotions also are typically involved
in normal stress reactions and in many psychological disorders. The ability
to self-regulate one’s emotions is one mark of psychological adjustment.
Our emotional states share four common features: . . . :
/ / Adjustment
1. Emotions are triggered by external or internal eliciting stimuli.
.
(
2. Emotional responses result from our appraisals of these stimuli, which
give the situation its perceived meaning and significance.
(
93Trigger / ) /(
Appraisal )/ ( /
3. Our bodies respond physiologicall
i
y to our appraisals. We may bec
physically aroused, as when we feel fear, joy or anger; or we
may experience decreased arousal, as when we feel contentment or
depression.
)
.
»
pl OS . 4. Emotions include behavior tendencies. Some are expressive behaviors
(eg smiling with joy, crying). Others are instrumental behaviors, ways of
doing something about the stimulus that evoked
the emotion (e.g; studying for an anxiety- arousing test).
)
(
.
)
.
1
)/ ( / Respond - ) (
EXPIessive
Sis )/ -- ( /
/ ( ( / Intrumental
Emotions do not occur in
a vacuum. They are responses to situations,
people, objects or events. Innate biological factors help determine which
stimuli have the greatest potential to arouse emotions. Newborn infants
come equipped with the capacity to respond emotionally with either
interest or distress to events in their environment.
» .
Sas
By . Vaccum
(557) /
94
) /( Equipped
/
Learning also influences our emotions. Previous experiences can turn
certain people of situations into eliciting stimuli. Cultures have different
standards for defining the good, the bad and the ugly that affect how we
appraise and respond to stimuli. Sr . Sou
»
. NE
Cross-cultural researchers have asked people in various countries to recall
events that triggered certain emotions and to answer questions about how
they appraised or interpreted the situations. In one study conducted in 27
different countries, people exhibited strong cross-cultural similarities in the
types of appraisals that evoked joy, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, shame and
.guilt
San
YY .
+ « « « «
.
Various
- ( /
Conduct ( / )/ -
37 Exhibit / )
( / Guilt
Are there sex differences in emotion People all around the world think
women are more emotional than men. Women do outperform men in
accurately recognizing facial expressions of emotion. But if you study
emotions as they are actually happening, men and women’s ratings of their
emotional experience look similar. The sexes differ most in how they
describe their emotional experiences in words and in the frequency of
smiling.us
LT . . we .
“ 7 SOME . )006 /(
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 6.1
PN
Choose the best choice
1. The passage explains ..............
a. behavioral reactions c. di i - differences among emotions b. psychological disorders d. interesting things about emotions /
) )
( (
2. The word “emotions” is closest in meaning to . ... .. vemotion )
a. feelings 3
b. cognition d. understanding
or
) )
)
It can be inferred from the passage that emotions are .......... to our life. .3
)
.
a. not important ¢. necessary
b. vital d. less important than feeling
( (
( (
Sex differences in emotions are .. .4
(F .... a. very slight 3 ¢. culture-dependent
b. very prominent d. seen only in fear and joy
) )
( (
.
Emotions have
.......... .5 functions.
) 0 1 a. a few useful ¢. very
b. not any d, unknown
( (
( (
6. There are cultural in how emotions are expressed. .
. ...
a. meanings ¢. theories
b. differences d. similarities
) )
) )
977. Our emotions states share . .. common features.
Ss) .
)
a. three c. five
b. four d. six
ole.
#(s Flo
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 6.2
Match the terms in column
A with their definitions in column B.
8
A
B
stimuli A. using one's own cognitive processes to
2. unhappy control and regulate one's own behavior and
3. evoke goals
4. intimate B. very close to some body
5. distress C.
a strong chance that something will happen in
6. increase
a particular way
7. recognize D. to accept that something is true or important
8. innate E. the fact or state of continuing to live or exist
9. form F. feeling sad or upset
10. tendency G. someone who is ugly has
a face that is
11. survival unpleasant to look at
12. ugly H. an opportunity for you to do something
13. self- regulation 1. to become larger in amount or number
J. to make something exist or develop
K. trigger cognitive appraisals and emotional
response
L.
a feeling that you have when you are very
unhappy, worried, or upset
M. not interesting, or exciting
98
N. to bring
a particular emotion, idea, or
memory into your mind
0. in one's nature
ise Exercise 6. 6.3 yo,
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
)
)
mood, add, emotion, distress, cross-cultural, tendency, perception, self-regulation, bland, recognized, survival, broaden, describe, threat,
depression
1.
A situation may evoke pleasure or .......... ,depending on how we
appraisal it. 22
3
ph .
...
of terrorism everyday.
.
2. They face the
rate of patients with this form of cancer is low.
.. 3.The .
.and anxiety.
t common mental disorders are
4 The moste (F
. 5. The scope of the book has been .......... to include the history of
Eastern Europe.
...
)
in this book.
) # SUS”
....
that he was not qualified for that job. LY
.
8855
is
a relatively long lasting emotional state.
99.
....
9. Most studies in
different countri .... psychology have involved comparisons between )
10.5500 involves using your cognitive processes to regulate ad
control your own behavior.
.
11.
.......... is the act of interpreting a stimulus registered in the brain. + ..
12. You have a (an) .......... to avoid arguments.
... + )
Many different disciplines have produced work on the .... .13
( ..... ...
100
Emotion and Cognition
General aims
5
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
0
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
.
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
bewildering, component, crucial, emphasize, era, expectancy, independent,
monitor, put forward, subdivide, successive, variety, whereas
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
( :
appraisal, arousal-interpretation theory, cognitive appraisal,
focused coping, feedback, wellbeing
3, Translate this lesson (emotion and cognition) into Persian.
F)
101Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
«
General words
Bewildering (adj):
SHY / - PRI(
a bewildering situation is confusing and difficult to understand .
His first day at work was extremely bewildering. . :
Component (n):
/ )/ - (
an individual quality or feature of something; element; factor
« «
Try the breaking the problem down into its separate components.
: .
/ - :(Crucial (adj
something that is crucial is extremely important because it has a major
effect on the result of something
.
Tt is crucial that all students develop these basic skills.
102
:
)/ / ( :(Emphasize (v
to give particular importance or attention to something; underscore »
At school they emphasize good manners.. :
/ / ( :(Era (n
a period of time that has a particular quality or character
Shy) .
We are living in an era in which technology is developing very rapidly.
:
Expectancy (n): oll
a feeling that something good or exciting is soon going to happen;
anticipation
»
There was an air of expectancy as the celebrities began arriving. . :
Independent (adj): (/ Cho!
not requiring or relying on other people for help or support
She is doing an independent study in Psychology department. . :
Monitor (v):
103/( / )
to regularly check something or watch someone in order to find out
what is happening
He will monitor and review company policy. . :
Put forward (v):
/ (op (
to suggest something or offer an idea especially so that people can discuss
it and make a decision
He rejected all the proposals put forward by the committee.
: . Subdivide (v):
) /( / . to divide the parts of something that has already been divided
:
Each section of the book is subdivided into four chapters. /
Successive (adj):
coming or happening one after another in a serious
: . He remains champion for the fifth successive year.
104
Vari - /
8
a number of people, things, ideas, etc those are all different from one
another; diversity
1
«
... «
We want to hear the opinions of a variety of people. ( : )
:(Whereas (conj
used for comparing two things, people, situations etc and showing that
there is an important difference between them »
...
.
Whereas knowledge can be acquired from books, skills must be learned
through practice.
oe
: (Sal) GF
Key words
Appraisal (n):
the cognitive and behavioral efforts people make to modify their emotions
.
The appraisal information determines the individual's emotional
: experience. LAS
Arousal-interpretation theory (n): /( / ) -it consists of high physiological arousal and an emotional interpretation of
that arousal . The arousal-interpretation theory proposed that the experience of emotion
requires high physiological arousal and an emotional interpretation of that
arousal.
SK - : . Cognitive appraisal (n):
)/ / (
assessment of the situation to decide whether it is stressful and whether the
individual has the resources to cope with it
.
Your cognitive appraisal of a stimulus determines your motional response
: OT . .to it
Emotion-focused coping (n):
)/ / (
a way of dealing with stress that aims to regulate the experience of distress . Emotion—focused coping is generally assessed by-self-report questionnaires
and may not reflect people's actual behavior.
: . Feedback (n):
) ( / )/ (
comments about how well or how badly someone is doing something
which are intended to help them do it better
106
.
Complaints arc valuable feedback on the effectiveness of the organization.
.
( ) :
Ibeing Wellbeing (n): 8 ge (n): /
the satisfactory state that someone or something should be in, that involves
i i fe such thing as being happy, healthy, and sal
Cod
I felt a growing sense of peace and well-being. . :
Emotion and Cognition
There is bewildering variety of theories of emotion. They differ
considerably because of the different aims of the theorists concerned. 0
Some theorists have viewed emotion mainly from a Physio
perspective, whereas others emphasize the cognitive processes
with emotion. Still other theorists have provided an overall account of the
relationships among the cognitive, physiological, and
0
. JB
+ . . 7 . Ji , .
/( Considerably / )
/ Aim
/ Perspective )/ ( -
107The first theory of emotion was put forward independently by William James in the United States and Carl Lange in Denmark. This could explain why the theory is generally known as the James-Lange theory. According to this theory, three successive stages are involved in producing emotion: . BY - . »
.
1. There is an emotional stimulus (e.g., a car comes rapidly towards you as
you cross the road).
) ( »
)
2. This produces bodily changes (e.g., arousal in the autonomic nervous
system).
» )4 ) )
3. Feedback from the bodily changes leads to the experience of emotion
(e.g., fear or anxiety).
”4 ) ( (
Schachter and Singer (1962) started the modern era in emotion research
with its emphasis on cognitive factors. According to their
arousal-interpretation theory, the experience of emotion depends on two factors both of which must be present: - :
.1 High physiological arousal.
)
2.An emotional interpretation of that arousal.
¥(
They argued that very similar states of physiological arousal are associated
with every emotion. We experience fear, anger, or whatever, because of the specific way in which the arousal is interpreted. The theory predicts that no
108
emotion will be experienced if either high physiological arousal or an
emotional interpretation 5
5rE tf os
.
SE . . / ) /( Similar
)/ ( / Predict
Another theory is appraisal theory. According to Lazarus re
i i i itive appraisal, erience is crucially dependent on cognitive a v
of the current situation. Cognitive appraisal can be
subdivided into three more specific forms of appraisal: wm 5 : .
i
.
) /( Crucially /
Primary appraisal: the situation is perceived as being positive, stressful, or
irrelevant to wellbeing.
« :
Secondary appraisal: account is taken of the resource available to the
individual to cope with the situation. i
:
1 1
ituati i tegies are the stimulus situation and coping strate :
with the primary and secondary appraisal being modified if
. 5 : .necessary
Primary / ) /(
109) /( Irrelevant /
( / Source )/
)/ ( / Secondary
This approach was developed by Smith and Lazarus (1993) to account for
our experience of different emotions. For example, anger, anxiety, and
sadness all possess the primary appraisal components of motivational
relevance. However, they differ in terms of secondary appraisal
components. Anxiety involves low or uncertain emotion— focused coping
potential and sadness involves low future expectancy for change.
.
Jia «
.
.
Relevance / ) /(
)/ ( / uncertain
110
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 7.1
YX ou
Choose the best choice a, b, or d. .
1. The passage explains .......... 1 )
..
a. stress and emotion c. the significance of emotions
b. research findings about emotion d. how emotion is controlled
(
)
»
(
2. The word “stimulus” is closest in meaning to ..........
) «
. ....
a. factor c. agent
b. incentive d. cause
)
de )
It can be inferred from the passage that theories have . .3
about emotions. 7
© we ) . a. different wa c. interesting
b. similar d. strange
111)
)
( (
According to James-Lange theory, there are
.......... stages in producing
.4
emotions,
+
( © ,
- a. several c. three
b. four d. two
(
YG Flo
5. Schachter and
Singer emphasized on
( + .
a. external factors
¢
©. cognitive factors b. internal factors d. emotional stress
)
)
)
)
6. Which of the following is not considered an emotion
5) .
a. joy c. anger b. fear d. thinking
)
)
)
7. Cognitive appraisal can be subdivided into forms of appraisal.
+
a. six c. four
b. five d. three
J ao fle ) a Vocabulary Exercises Exercise 7.2 7- Match the terms in column
A with their definitions in column B.
B
A
A
B
1. variety A. the satisfactory state that someone or something 2.emotion— should be in
focused B. an individual quality or feature of something coping C.
a situation is confusing and difficult to understand 3, successive D. the cognitive and behavioral efforts people make 4. wellbeing to modify their emotions
5. component E.
a bewildering situation is confusing and difficult
to understand
7: appraisal F. to give particular importance or attention to
something
9. bewildering G.
a number of people, things, ideas, etc 10. expectancy H. to suggest something or offer an idea
11.put forward 1. something that is crucial
12. emphasize J. coming or happening one after another in
a serious
13. monitor K.
a period of time that has
a particular quality or character
L. to regularly check something or watch someone in
order to find out what is happening
M.
a feeling that something good or exciting is soon
going to happen
N.
a way of dealing with stress that aims to regulate the experience of distress
O. ruled by its own government
Exercise 7.3
!7
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
. .
113well-being, feedback, emotion—focused, cognitive appraisals,
variety, arousal-interpretation, bewildering, appraisal theory,
separate, whereas, put forward, monitor, independent, era, crucial
1. One of our main targets is social .......... .
.
( ..... ....
2. Marks and comments on assignments provide .......... to students.
.
.... .....
)
3. People study yoga for a (an) .......... of reasons.
.... ( .. .
4. .coping is important in determining the effects of stressful events
on an individual's mental and physical state. . 5. Staff will .......... his programs.
8)
6. Your .......... of situations are closely tied to motivation. . A
7. The president promised to bring in anew .......... of peace. . .
8. Your name was .......... as a possible team leader.
A)
9. He stood as a (an) .......... candidate.
6 ( .. .
10. helps to explain why people vary in their emotional experience
in any given situation.
. .
11. salaries have risen substantially, .......... nurses’ pay has
actually fallen.
114
1( .... .. Cad
factor in deciding who could be the 12. Experience is a (an)
best person for the job. ) .... .
13. The .......... theory was very influential in its emphasis on, the role of
cognitive factors in emotion. . HE A )
115
Stress and Coping
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
0 SE by
2. This chapter aims at raising students general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study. 0
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
Define the meaning of the following general words: .1 ) : OW
advice, aim, asthma, benefit, cause, combine, contrast, diabetes, distancing,
economic, encounter, endure, exceed, excessive, gear, handle, headache,
hug, label, limit, manage, realize, relevance, safety, strain, strategy, various
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
(
anxiety disorder, challenge, chronic, emotional support, emotionfocused
coping, mental disorder, problem—focused coping, selfcontrol, social
support, stress, stressor, suppression, wishful thinking
116
3, Translate this lesson (stress and coping) into Persian.
Word study ry J
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
.
«
General words pee
Advice (V):
)/ = / ( ©
to give your opinion to someone about the best thing to do in a particular
situation
.
Students are advised to read all the questions carefully. :
the thing that you hope to achieve by doing something
The aim of this project is help patients to be more independent.
.
:
thma (n):
/ - hs 0
2 medical condition that makes it difficult to breathe
. 1
Asthma is caused by environmental and genetic factors.
117Benefit (n):
/ 4[ Cady )
an advantage you get from a situation . The new sports centre will bring lasting benefit to the community.
: . Cause (v):
)/ ( /
to make something happen
The fire was caused by an electrical fault.
:
Combine (v):
/ ) /(
put them together
Some films combine education and play.
: ( ) ES
Contrast (n): - /( / )
difference between people or things 2101668016
There are the contrast between her life before the accident and now. . :
Diabetes (n):
118
()/ /
a serious medical condition in which your body does not produce enough
insulin to produce amount of sugar in the blood
OT
We are studying diabetes in the library.
: .
Distancing (n):
/ )1 (
the amount of space between two people or things
«
His parents live some distancing away. . :
Economic (adj):
/ Cds ) (
relating to the business, industry, and trade of a particular country or region
«
New opportunities will emerge as the economic climate improves.
: .
Encounter (v):
)/ / - (
to experience or deal with something, especially a problem; confront
We encounter one small problem during the trial run. . 0S :
Endure (v):
/ (py
119to suffer something unpl
period; leasant or different in a patient way over a long tolerate
”
»
He endured solitude and torture for months at a time.
: .
Exceed (v):
)/ ( /
to be greater than a number or amount
Wind speeds exceeded 60 miles per hours.
: 2 +
Excessive (adj):
ea
much more than reasonable or necessary; extreme
»
Crops were destroyed by the excessive rainfall last khordad.
:
Gear (v):
)/ ( /
to prepare something or make it suitable for a particular situation, use; furnish
iS,
group, or
612038
We were geared for the visit and are disappointed that it was cancelled. :
:
Handle (v):
/ /(
to take action to deal with a difficult situation
1
The government was criticized for the way it handled the crisis.
:
Headache (n):
a pain in your head
noise was giving her a headache.
: me .
)/ ( /
to put your arms round someone to show love or friendship
10 ing She was sitting on the floor hugging her knees.
:
Label (v): ier
1 on an object;
es
wi She labels all her cassettes with the name and date:
,
:
Limit (n):
int beyond which it is not possible to go
1
It is important to exercise, but you need to know your limits.
121:
Lh
Manage (v):
/ /)
to succeed in doing something, especially s i g, esp ly something that needs a lot of
think I can manage a long walk today. 1
Sb : ) (
Realize (v): - / /( « By
to know and understand something; conceive
realized my mistake in the paper. 18000
:
Relevance (n):
) sks )/ /
the quality of being connected with and important to something else
Jan Sy
The course covers four areas of relevance to modern life,
:
Safety (n):
a= /
the fact that a thing is safe to do or use
Refugees walked for several days until they reached safety,
:
Strain (n): - Co) / pressure caused by a difficult situation; stress 1 00 think our relationship can stand the strain of another move. aly : Strategy (n): ) / /( a plan or method for achieving something, especially over a long period of time The countries hope to devise a common strategy to provide aid. Various (adj): ) dol different and more than a few; many For various reasons, it has not been possible to carry out improvements. , : Key words Anxiety disorder (n): / /( characterized by motor tension, hyperactivity and apprehensive thoughts » Anxiety disorders are more prevalent in women than in men.
123.
Challenge (v):
)/ /
to question whether something is true, accurate, or legal
¢
No one has challenged the assumptions that are made in that theory. Coal
. :(Chronic (adj
refers to long-standing and usually permanent disorders + :
He is suffering from chronic mental disorder.
:
Emotion - focused coping (n):
)7 /
way of dealing with stress that aims to regulate the experience of distress . In children and adults, emotion—focused coping strategies that involve avoidance and denial seem to be related to less effective adaptation.
:
ep
Mental disorder (n):
/ (Ua af
entire range of abnormal behavior patterns
The most widely used classification scheme for mental disorders in
the United State is DSM-III-R.
124
:: DSM-III-R
0
1
0201560]- coping (n): / /( )
way of dealing with stress that aims to change the situation that is creating : :
stress
Problem—focused coping tends to focus attention on the stressprovoking
: .situation
.
Self-control (n):
the ability to control impulsiveness by inhibiting immediate desires; self-
pine
The ability to control behavior and not show strong emotions such as
elf-control. anger or sadness refers to st y 0: 1 :
‘Social support (n):
i jon-focused strategies s problem-focused and emotion
omnes .
ial 51 buffer against the impact of stress. Social support may serve as a ct = :
:(Stress (n
125a response elicited when a situati re on overwhelms a person's i
ability to meet the demands of a situation; tension
Sj
Stress may stem from pressure to achieve specific goals.
. :
Stressor (n):
) /( /
events that trigger a stress response . Th 8 e severity of stress depends not only on the nature of the stressor, but
also on how the stressor is perceived and evaluated. : . OT
Suppression (n):
« / )/ (
conscious forcing of desires or th conscio 1 oughts out of consciousness; i
inhibition of desires or impulses
GET » i Suppression involves the erate a Sian > ind conscious effort to forget
. :
‘Wishful thinking (n):
( /
a belief that something that you want to be true is true
It is not clear that it is a fact or it is a wishful thinking.
: .
126
Stress and Coping
) (
It has often been said that ours is the “age of stress.” It is probably true that
more people than ever report being highly stressed. Stress is “the
psychological and physical strain or tension generated by physical,
emotional, social, economic, or occupational circumstances, events, or
experiences that are difficult to manage or endure.” wh)
.
.
» » »
.
601316
000
/ (mi 55 ee) =
Stress has different meanings in different contexts. Stress can be external to
us. We can think of stress as something that happens to usthat is, as
situations that push us to the limit or threaten our safety or well being. We
call these events that push us to the limit or exceed our ability to manage
the situation at hand stressors. The focus on the
situations that cause stress is known as the stimulus view of stress.
.
.
.
/ Context . .
1.31)7 Exceed / )
127In contrast, stress can be internal to us; we can think of it as the feeling we experience when events are too much to handle. The response view of stress has focused on the physiological changes that occur when someone
encounters an excessively challenging situation.
.
.
Excessively / )
Clearly stress is much more than being in certain situations and it is much
more than physiological responses. It exists within the relationship between the external events and the internal responses.
. . Stress emerges from people’s interpretations of the relevance of certain stressors to their lives and their ability to deal with them. This relational view of stress holds that stress is a particular relationship between the people and the situations in which they find themselves.
.
- .
)/ ( /Particular -
A key topic within stress research is the relationship between stress and disease. Stress has been linked with numerous physical illnesses, including headaches, infectious disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis. It has also been linked with various mental disorders including the anxiety disorders and depression. . » » » »
.
.
128
/( Topic/ )
) / Numerous )/
)/ ( / Infection
Cardiovascular / )/ ( --
/( Romatoid / (3 sles,
/) ) / Arthritis
) /( Disorder /
Even though stress results from situations in which we feel that we cannot
manage or cope with the challenges we face, we are
i 2 ther we realize it or not. 7 those challenges in some way whe x
coping refers to anything people do to deal with or manage stress or
i
0
.
( / Even though . «
Psychologists differentiated between two types of coping
labeling them problem-focused and emotion- focused coping. So
support combines problem-focused and emotionfocused coping strategies.
) ( LS 4 1
ME Old . en .|
Differentiate / (
Problem-focused coping involves strategies that aim to change the
that is creating stress. For example, if your Gigi plays
i i i 10056 todiscuss if while you are sleeping, you might cl it wi or cut the speaker wires. Each of these choices is a form of
129problem-focused coping, as each is geared toward changing the situation
that created stress. . Jl
.
.
Roommate / (ox /(
Loudly / ) /( - Earplug/ ) /(
Wire /( Hs /(
In contrast, emotion-focused coping aims to regulate the experience of distress. Lazarus and Folkman describe several forms of emotion-focused
coping, including reappraisal, the emotional regulation strategy of reevaluation of a situation in light of new information or additional
thought; distancing, or attempting to separate oneself from an emotional
experience; escape-avoidance, wishful thinking or doing something to get
one’s mind off the situation (such as going to the movies); seeking social support by talking with friends for purposes of emotional support; self- control, or trying to regulate one’s feelings or actions regarding the problem; and accepting responsibility, acknowledging one’s role in the stresseliciting situation.
. «
GE - ) (
» »
) (
» . »
86617/01011007 ) /(
130 - / ) / Additional Distancing / ) /( /(!. Escape avoidance / Mind off / /( Seek / ) /( /( Regarding / ) Responsibility / ) / ( / ) Aknowledging eneficial when a situation is beyond oblematic. Willful suppression of f self-control, can lead to chronic Emotion-focused coping may be one’s control. But it can also pr 8 : an 00 upsetting emotions, which is a fol i arousal and is associated with poor sychological adjustment. 2 1 ul 2 . red | TERE. 1 / ) Beneficial / ) /( - Beyond /( Problemistic ) /( Upseting / ) A coping strategy that combines problem- and emotion- focused coping is seeking social support. Our friends and loved ones provide advice, give i i der stress. Social or simply listen when we are un ym not is one of the most frequently used ways of coping but also can benefit physical health. 131LS
»
.
.
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 8.1
Choose the best choice a, b, d.
abcd .
1. The passage explains ........... . ) .... a. different kinds of stressors > theories of stress
b. how to prevent stress d. stress and coping strategies )
)
)
(
2. The word “stress” is closest in meaning to ..........
CY ...... » 502655 «
a. pressure c. tension”
b. disorder d. agent ) )
( (
132
types of coping Psychologists differentiate between ..........
tegies.
,
... 6
several c. three
four d. two )
( YG
The important thing about stress
( ..... : .
it is very useful and necessary J
causes many physical and mental disorders
is very strange and vague
is not so important or harmful )
(
)
) any
5. Which of the following is not considered a view of stress
ois ) 5
a psychotherapeutic . stimulus view
I». response view d. relational view (2 )
( (
6. The view of stress that focuses on physiological changes is called
.
)
a. the stimulus view >. the tension view
the response view d. the relational view) )
( daly (
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 8.2
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
A 8 .
A B
1. suppression A. the ability to control impulsiveness by inhibiting
2.anxiety immediate desires
disorder B. a medical condition that makes it difficult to breathe
3. stressor C. conscious inhibition of desires or impulses
4. chronic D. characterized by motor tension, hyperactivity and
5. strain apprehensive thoughts
6. asthma E. different and more than a few
7. combine F. refers to long-standing and usually permanent
8. challenge disorders
9. excessive G. to question whether something is true, accurate,
10. benefit or legal
11. self-control H. pressure caused by a difficult situation
12. aim 1. the thing that you hope to achieve by doing something
13. various J. a pain in your head
K. to be greater than a number or amount
L. much more than reasonable or necessary
M. events that trigger a stress response
N. put them together
0. an advantage you get from a situation
134
Exercise 8.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
stressor, anxiety disorder, chronic, emotion-focused coping,
contrast, mental disorder, problem-focused coping, diabetes,
selfcontrol, stress, aim, asthma, combine, charge, handle
i be the most adaptive approach we can take, for while we
cannot master the situation. 07 ”
0
0
is different from mental retardation.
L(Y .... AS .
3. The longer a (an) ..........operates, the more sever its effects.
OT » )
.
4. We are most likely touse .......... when we feel that we can do
something to change the situation.
(
5. Several present-day life situations may produce a great deal of
) 8
illness or pain is serious and last for a long time. .6 ) ©
....
.
The newer computers can .......... massive amounts of data. .7
.....
V)
1358. Parents should show more .
,
in front of their children.
A) ;OUI
9. Many environmental risk factors have been associated with
development in children. 4(
..
10. High tides with strong winds caused severe flooding.
.
...
11. The seem a little excessive.
01 ...
12. My main .......... on this course is to gain confidence.
07
..
+ 93
13. are the most prevalent psychiatric disorders. . (WY
136
Personality
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
0
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
lan «
Behavioral objectives .
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
appreciate, assume, assumption, disposition, distinguish, distort, hide,
hostile, layer, notably, perspective, relatively, term, undoubtedly, urge,
worst
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
( :
agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, humanistic, neuroticism,
openness to experience, personality, psychodynamic
perspective, slip of the tongue, socio-cultural, unconditional positive
regard, unconscious
1373. Translate this lesson (personality) into Persian,
F)
Word study
3
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples .
General words
Appreciate (v):
/ - (E22)
to understand the true nature of a situation, and realize why it is 1 0 1 . OT
Doctors are beginning to appreciate how dangerous this drug can be.
:
Assume (v):
/( / )
to believe that something is true, even 3 though no one h:
though you had no proof; postulate 5
of
»
Everyone accepted she was telling the i truth i g ruth, although in fact this was
:
Assumption (n):
138
something you consider likely to be true even though no one has told you
directly or even though you have no proof
.
There is an assumption that all the people who live around here are rich.
fly
:
Disposition (n): - the way that someone normally thinks and behaves that shows what type of
person they are
.
This film is not suitable for viewers of a nervous disposition. . ( ) DALE :
- / )/ ( :(Distinguish (v
to recognize the differences between things; discriminate
He learned to distinguish a great variety of birds, animals, and plants. :
«
/ )/ ( :(Distort (v
to change something such as information so that it is no longer true or
accurate; misrepresent
OF
The paper was accused of distorting the truth. :
/ / ) ( :(Hide (v
139to put something in a place so that no one can find or see
I wanted to hide his present from him until his birthday.
:
Hostile (adj):
)/ / (
behaving in a very unfriendly or threatening way towards someone
The minister found himself in the middle of a hostile crowd. . :
Layer (n):
/
an amount or sheet of a substance that covers a surface
.
There was a thin layer of ice on the sidewalks.
:
Notably (adv):
/ )/ - (
unusual or interesting enough to be mentioned or noticed .
It was notable that he had grown thinner with age. . :
Perspective (n):
/ )/ (
a way of thinking about something
The problem needs to be looked at from a historical perspective.
140
:
.
Relatively (adv): 0" )
i arison with a similar thing, person, group
« SL
:
irline pilots. Relatively few women become airline pilof 7 . :
gi - / / )
a word or phrase used for referring to something . ws i ise. In simple terms, you need more 0 . :
Undoubtedly adv): (adv)
used for saying that something is certainly true or is accepted by every one .
i ial. The new few days will undoubtedly prove crucia
. SU : - to advise someone very strongly about what action or attitude they should
take
.
We urge that systems be put in place to prevent such accidents. : 0 : . 11Worst (adj):
Chel
worse than all others
In my opinion, it is her worst book.
: .
Key words
Agreeableness (n):
/ )/ Cold
a person who is cooperative, helpful and godnature
Cl »
Agreeableness refers to such traits a: 8 8 s selflessness, gentle, erati
flexible, and sympathetic. 2 1
:
Conscientiousness (n):
a person who is hard-working, ambitious and persistent
« .
Individuals who are low in conscienti cientiousness tend to be less careful and
:
.
Extraversion (n):
/ 1 (
a person who is sociable, optimistic and talkative
142
» Col
Some researches show that extraversion is negatively related to
academic performance. :
.
( -- ( :(Humanistic (adj
a science concerned with higher human motives, self-development,
knowledge and understanding - » »
Humanistic perspective emphasized free will, personal growth and the
attempt to find meaning in one's existence. : »
.
( / )/ :(Neuroticism (n
a personality factor based on negative emotional experiences (€.8., anxiety
ad depression)
) (
Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and
vulnerable to stress. : . Openness to experience (n): / /(
a person who is curious, imaginative and creative
.
«
Some researches demonstrate that among personality traits openness
to experience and agreeableness correlated positively with grade point
average.
143yds
Personality (n):
)/ / (
the unique and relati i
0 0
kin ively enduring set of behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and
»
Adult personality depends more on heredi ity and on thy i adolescence and adulthood than assumed by Freud.
» 025 :
.
Preconscious (n):
/ )/ (
memories, 7, feelings, thoughts and images : ges that we are una moment but that can be recalled
of information and ideas that could be retrieved
:
Psychodynamic perspective (n):
/ )
searches for the causes of behavior withi i 1 h r within the inner workirkings of our
Psychodynamic theorists look for th i I r © causes of behavior i i interplay of inner motivational forces.
:
144
Slip of the tongue (n):
) /( / 0
mething you say when you intended to say something else
.
According to psychoanalysis, slips of the tongue show unconscious
processes.
.
: «
Socio-cultural (pref):
) /( / - relating to society and social cultures: used with some adjectives and nouns . »
Some theories insist on socio-cultural factors in their approaches. . : - Unconditional positive regard (n):
95 ( / )/
acceptance of another person regardless of his or her behavior
Unconditional positive regard requires that we separate person from
behavior.
:
Unconscious (n):
/ - (GT)
one of Freud's three levels of consciousness; it contains all the drives,
urges, or instincts that are outside awareness
PET »
Freud argued «that unconscious processes and motives influence our
behavior,
145: . Personality
When psychologists use the term personality, they are referring to the
unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and
motives that characterize an individual. There are two key components to
this definition. First, personality is what distinguishes us from one another
and makes us unique. Second, personality is relatively enduring, or
consistent. Let’s consider these key components in more detail.
YL
.
Cl
.
Tr
Characterize / - Unique / ) /(
Consistent / /(
The study of personality has been guided by a number of perspectives;
notably, the psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behavioral, cognitive
and socio-cultural perspectives.
+
»
Undoubtedly the most famous of all psychologists is Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939). Freud not only proposed an overarching theory of personality
and psychotherapy but also founded the movement known as
psychoanalysis and in the process of doing so essentially invented the field
of psychotherapy. . OT
146
/( Famous / (ual
Psychotherapy / ) ( /
The starting point for theory of psychoanalysis is the idea that the
unconscious is the most powerful force in our personality.
Freud described three layers of consciousness:
and conscious. The conscious layer is simply what we are it]
given moment in time, whereas the preconscious 85 just below
: .of awareness
» HET »
. . . PET
/( / ( Psychoanlysis
Powerful ( / )/
/ Surface
According to Freud, the unconscious contains all the drives, urges, Or
instincts that are outside awareness but nonetheless motivate most of
speech, thoughts, feelings, or actions. Before Freud, most people assume:
that what we consciously think, feel, and believe is a relatively
and important source of information for explaining our behavior an
personality. Freud believed that much of what we do and the reasons ie
we do it are hidden from our awareness and revealed to us only in distort
forms, such as slips of the tongue and dreams. dl
« « .
«
«
.
« .
147)/ ( / Instinct
)/ / Nonetheless
/ Speech )/ -
) (/ Hidden /
) /(
A second major perspective i on cctiv plaining personality comes from
a humanistic approach, which is optimistic about human nature, believing that humans are naturally interested in realizing their full potential. Humanists argue that psycholo gy needs to study humans
i
well as at their worst. bet +
.
) /( Optimistic /
Humanistic
i)/
Rogers developed
a unique form of psychotherapy based on the assumption that people naturally strive toward 20] ral growth and fulfillment unconditional positive regard for that to happen. Unconditional positive regard is the ability to respect and appreciate another person unconditionally- that is, regardless of their behavior.
.
0 + /( 2205( Fulfillment
86506617 ( )/
Appreciate / ) /( 148
)/ ( / Regardless
A third major category of personality theory is based on the social
cognitive learning perspective. For example,
a hostile person may be less
hostile in one situation (for example, being run into by
a child) than in
another (for example, being cut off in traffic).
( ) ( ) - .
.
) (
--
) /( 1050
/
)60140621 /(
A fourth general perspective that explains personality is the trait
approach, which assumes that traits or dispositions are the major force
behind personality. Personality researchers proposed five universal and
widely dimensions of personality. This perspective is known as the Big
Five or five-factor model; the five dimensions are openness to experience,
conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These
traits are normally distributed in the population, with most people falling
somewhere between the two extremes on each trait,
) (
(ool ,
8
. Bis FIVE (
) » »
» .
) (
/ ) /( 015005800
Ser Universal / ) /(
/ Widely #
149Understanding the Passage
Exercise 9.1
4-
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢ or d. .
The passage explains ........... .1 . .. )
a. kinds of personality
b. different theories of personalit
>. the nature of personality and its components
d. how personality theory is made
)
)
)
(
2. The word “personality” is closest in meaning to
personality ) ... .. »
a. person > behavior
b. awareness d. character lt
) )
It can be inferred from the pas: .3 passage that there are ...... i
and theories about personality.
”( ...
.
a. afew many 2
150
b. only two d. unacceptable
!
( (
JB ( (
According to Freud, the most powerful force in our personality is .4
a. unconscious wi ©. conscious
b. preconscious d. awareness ) )
( (
universal
5. According to Big Five model, there are
dimensions of personality. (Big Five ) (0
... . a. six
b. cight d. several 41) (#
) Ale
6. Freud said that most of our speech, thoughts, feelings or actions are
motivated by ) ©
» »
a. the conscious dreams
b. the d. the preconscious ) )
) )
1 "Vocabulary Exercises
SW
Exercise 9.2
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
A B
A B
1. personality A. a person who is sociable, optimistic and
2.openness to talkative
experience B. worse than all others
3. slip of the tongue
4. agreeableness
5. extraversion
C. it contains all the drives, urges, or
instincts that are outside awareness
D. a science concerned with higher human 6. term motives, self-development
7. worst E. a person who is curious, imaginative and 8. perspective creative
9. distort F. a word or phrase used for referring to 10. neuroticism something
11. assume G. the unique and relatively enduring set of 12. humanistic
13. unconscious
behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and motives
H. to put something in a place
I. to change something such as information
J. to believe that something is true
K. a personality factor based on negative emotional experiences
L. used for saying that something is true
M. something you say when you intended to
say something else
N. a way of thinking about something
©. a person who is cooperative, helpful and god-nature
152
..... suggests that many of motivational determinants of behavior
Exercise 9.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
. . unconscious, unconditional positive regard, socio-cultural factors,
neuroticism, disposition, humanistic perspective, extraversion,
conscientious, agreeable, worst, distort, layer, psychodynamic
perspective, personality, openness to experience
students concentrate on goals to achieve them.
.
( ..
2. The .. consists of information that is either very difficult or
almost impossible to bring into conscious awareness.
Sn
. people have an optimistic view of human nature. . ) ( ..... )
4. Rogers developed the concept of .......... to help people achieve
self-fulfillment.
8 .... (
unconscious.
.
.)
5 influenced by genetics.
....
(
6. Twin studies have found that . 7. Electronic faults can .......... the radio signal.
V) .....
8. Freud put forward the first systematic theory of ..........
[4 153A) .... .
il) 9. wc is characterized by positive emotions and the tendency to seek out stimulation and the company of others.
(RAL ..
2, Soe showed the role of
..........
on intelligence
( .
11.
..........
1 ; i ibili and positive feeling
. 1 «
12. The noise from the airport is the .......... at night.
.. . AY)
Individuals who score low in
..........
are less easily upset and are less .13emotionally reactive.
Clb
” ( .... .
.
154
Health Psychology
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
( .
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study. (YF
.
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
carry out, conclude, dying, enhance, hypertension, massive, mortality,
onset, pain, promote, reduction, rehabilitation, surgical
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
Y) :
health psychology, intervention, lifestyle, meta-analysis, susceptibility
3. Translate this lesson (health psychology) into Persian.
F)
4 155Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
.
General words
Carry out (vb):
/ )/ Cf
to do a particular piece of work, research etc; administer
«
An investigation is being carried out by the students.
:
Conclude (v):
/ )/ (
to decide that something is true after looking at all the evidence you have;
determine
el
The author concludes the chapter with a brief summary of his research. . Dying (adj):
Cho /) (
,Jb 2
not likely to live niuch longer
Attempts to save the dying man failed.
: OT
Enhance (v):
156 - / to improve something, or make it more attractive or more valuable . This program should enhance the residents’ quality of life. . : Hypertension (n): (/ / a condition in which your blood pressure is extremely high . OT Hypertension is the disease or disorder of abnormally high blood pressure. . : Massive (adj): ae — large in amount or degree We can find a massive amount of information on the internet. : Mortality (n): ) /( / the number of deaths within a particular area, group etc ... The mortality rate has recently increased in Africa. : Onset (n): (/ ol the beginning of something, especially something bad 157The onset of the disease showed that we havave to be prepared for the
: . Pain (n):
Mtl
a feeling that you have i 5 you have in a part of your body when you are hurt or become
.
Hamid has been enduring considerable back pain for a number of years . :
Promote (v):
)/ /
to support or encourage something; to help something to develop
«
The government is commi i an 11160 to promoting the development and use of
:
Reduction (n):
he procs 1 L pi e process or result of making somethi i 8 ething smaller or less in amount, size,
»
...
There has been a dramatic reduction in the birth rate.
:
Rehabilitation (n):
/ )0
158
restore to a good condition; to help someone give up drugs, so that they can
return to a healthy, independent, and useful life
» . They proposed a scheme for the care and rehabilitation of elderly patients.
.
:
/ :(Surgical (adj
connected with medical operations or used for medical operations
Male nurses are cleaning surgical tools.
.
:
Key words
/ ( :(Health psychology (n
the study of the role psychological factors play in regarded to physical
health and illness
PE
The field of health psychology grew out of psychosomatic medicine.
,
: ) (
Intervention (n): Cig al) /
a situation in which someone becomes involved in a particular issue,
problem etc in order to influence what happens »
Se ...
Drug interventions are necessary in chronic mental disorders.
159:
Lifestyle (n):
) /( /
the type of life you have, for example the type of job or house you have
»
Health psychologists have an increasi i reasingly important role to play i
persuading people to adopt healthier lifestyles that will extend their %
:
.
Meta-analysis (n):
/ /( )
research technique for combinin, r g all research results on or i
drawing a conclusion
To do a meta-analysis, the re: 2 searcher has to convert the findi 2
study to a standardized statistic.
: »
.
Susceptibility (n):
)/ skein) /
the tendency to be easily affected or influenced by something
Researchers are ibili Te wing the gene that controls susceptibility to mental
:
160
Health Psychology
Health psychology addresses factors that influence well-being and illness,
as well as measures that can be taken to promote health and
prevent illness. It therefore confronts many of the leading problems of our
times. For example, because stress has negative effects on both physical
and psychological well-being, the study of stress and coping is a central
focus of health psychology. Pain is another important topic because itis a
central feature of many illnesses and a major stressor. . . »
STL
.
,
/( Adress / (
/ ) ( / Therefore
( )
Health psychologists explore factors that influence pain perceptions and
develop psychological interventions to reduce people’s suffering. Health
psychology includes disease onset, prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation
and involves clinical practice as well as research. Health psychology
ranges from studies of how psychological variables enhance health or
increase susceptibility to disease.
Coan
« + ,
.
.
/( / ( Clinical
161Variables / (G5 )/
Unal, Critchley, Fidan, and Capewell (2005) estimated that the number of people in England and Wales dying from heart disease was 68, 230 fewer in 2000 than in 1981. This reduction produced a gain of about 925,415 life
years, There are two main ways in which we might explain this reduction in mortality from heart disease. First, and most obviously, there have been substantial advances in medicine. These advances include the development of more precise and effective surgical interventions, increased use of aspirin to prevent heart attacks, and treatment for hypertension. Second, there are changes in lifestyle. Some of these changes are clearly beneficial (e.g., reduction in smoking), but others have adverse effects (e.g., increased obesity; decreased physical activity).
» »
88710 27000 1481 . .
. pals . + »
Sal . .
( ) (
).
Estimate / ) /(
/ ) (
)/ ( / Substantial -
( / Precise
Attacks / ) 3857) /
- /) ) / Adverse
Here is a question based on the above information. What percentage of the reduced mortality from heart disease is attributable to medical
162
i 7The answer may es and what percentage to lifestyle changes er may
you-Unal al. (2005) concluded that 79% of the
i 21% was a result of me s a result of lifestyle changes and only 1 a
iil Lifestyle changes had a massively positive sffect
even though some changes (e.g. reduced physical 1 activity; increas
obesity) had a negative effect on mortality from heart disease. pug
.
) 1008 ( VA
1 !
.
Percentage / ) 7 damp
/ (Attributable / 51
- /) ¢ / Overall
Lifestyle changes involve changing behavior, and the experts in devising
ways of changing behavior are psychologists. More specifically, many
health psychologists focus on interventions designed to produce benefici
lifestyle changes. The lifestyle change having by far the greatest impact
reduced mortality from heart was a reduction in the number
0 0
people smoking. . .
.
Devising /( / (
/( By ) far/
) ( / Impact
v 163Viswesvaran and Schmidt (1992) carried out
a meta-analysis of 633
smoking cessation studies. The annual success rate achieved by health
psychologists was 30% with multi-component packages basic
counseling; information on the health effects of smoking; social skills training; nicotine patches) compared to 6% for smokers receiving no
treatment. Since there are still about 10 million smokers
in the UK, there is scope for health psychologists to reduce mortality
from heart disease considerably in the future.
"21
« « ( «
# .
.
- Cessation / ) /(
)/ ( / Annual
Package )/ ( /
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 10.1
-
Choose the best choice a, b,
¢ or d.
.
1. The passage explains .......... .
....
)
a. heart disease prevention ©. causes of heart disease
b. how to change lifestyle d. the effect of psychology on health
( (
164
é
9
..
)
) Less
: Fr thy ) 2. The word “mortality” is closest in meaning to
) mortality » » .
a. long life c. short life
b. death rate d.tobe
1
( death rate (
b;
3. Tt can be inferred from the passage that psychology promotes health by
8
......
a. improving 0 ¢. making us resistant to disease
gus resistant to
d
improving our moral
.helping to prevent disease b. helping in {ifestyle changes sph
(
( (
4. Stopping smoking is
a case of
a. decision-making . lifestyle change wl
i d. risk-taking
0"
b. physical activity .
)
art disease mortality reduction in 5, The most important cause of he
England was
a. increase in the number of doctors
b. increase of medical centers of
¢. substantial advances in medicine
d. decrease in smoking
165)
On world level, the main cause of less heart disease mortality is ..... .6
35 )
a. lifestyle change . taking more effective medicine
b. reduced smoking d. getting more exercise
( SSL (
(
(
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise
2
-
Match the terms in column
A with their definitions in column B.
B
A
A
B
1. carried out A. the tendency to be easily affected or influenced by 2. lifestyle something
3.health B. connected with medical operations or used for psychology medical operations
4. promote C. the process or result of making something smaller 5. pain or less in amount or size
6. surgical D. the study of the role psychological factors play in 7. hypertension regarded to physical health and illness
8. susceptibility E. to support or encourage something; to help 9. onset something to develop
10. reduction F. the beginning of something
11. dying G. the type of life you have
H. blood pressure is extremely high 1.10 do
a particular piece of work, research etc
J.
a feeling that you have in
a part of your body when
you are hurt or become ill
K. restore to
a good condition
L. not likely to live much longer
M. to stop something from happening
166
N. probability of
a cancer
Exercise 10.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
..
.
.
mote pain, mortality, lifestyle, health psychology, reductions, promote,
t
noise, hypertension, enhance, conclude, carried out
1. She was sure the/.......... would prevent her sleeping at night.
.
)
tells us whether all of the research on
a topic has or has not led
to consistent findings.
0
....
will see great .......... in prices.
Lind .
that there is
a new solution.
">
,
5 explores the role of psychological factors in the development,
prevention, and treatment of illness.
.
0) .... «
is
a decline in infancy ...........
© ( ... , 6Theres
7. She found it hard to cope with the ........ ..of being separated from her
children.
... ...
.
167
2
8. A college course can help you find work or
a (A .... nb . Ps; chological Disorders is a chronic medical condition in whic h i thy 1610 the blood pressure is
..
General aims
10. Your plan can produce beneficial ls This unit will enable students to acquire:
11. A study is being .......... by the researchers.
FY
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning,
(
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a level appropriate for university study,
(
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
1) :
allow, anguish, association, boundary, classificatory, criteria, deviant, discomfort, dysfunctional, impairment, imply, interfere, literally, major, revision, statistical, suffering, vague, wane
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
abnormal, abnormality, adjustment disorders, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, diagnostic, dissociative disorders, distress, eating
169disorders, mental di mood disorders, preven sorder, mental retardati 7: 2 1 tion, i pi psychiatric, schizophrenia, social norm, somatof oform disorders, - Symptom,
3. Translate this esson (psychologic: orders) into Persian 1 ( logical disord, ) into Persi
Word study
Study the following definitions, Synonyms and examples + »
General words
Allow (v); 7
) ( / / © gi 0 give someone permission to do or have something
8
arents allow the children to watch television at weekends.
sls i
:
Anguish (n):
Sls )/ / (
a
feeli
1
feeling of great physical or emotional pain; sorrow
diss
The rejection filled him with anguish
:
COR / -
Association (n):
a connection between two things
6Sl) / So) y=
Smoking has a close association with lung cancer.
.
:
)/ / ( :(Boundary (n
the limits of an activity or experience
New research pushes back the boundaries of genetic science.
: Lily
Classification (n): ) /( /
the process of putting people or things into particular groups according to
the features that they have
A student has finished the collection and classification of data.
.
:
)/ ( :(Criteria (n
standards that are used for judging something or making a decision about
something
OT
Everyone whose qualifications meet our criteria will be considered. : »
/ = :(Deviant (n
someone who behaves in a way that most people do not consider normally
corrected; abnormal
Deviant behavior occurs along a continuum from mild to sever.:
.
Discomfort (n): ) /( /
a feeling of slight pain
His behavior caused us great discomfort and annoyance.
:
.
Dysfunctional (adj): ) /( /
not working normally
Academic and social inadequacy can Ny y trigger88 the e ddevelopment of conduct
AS
.
Impairment (n): / /(
the fact that a part of your body is unable to do something fully
.
Hearing impairment is the temporary or ring permanent loss of s
hearing in one or both ears.
:
0
Imply (v):
/ (
if one thing implies another thing, the other thing is lik i gis likely to exist or to be
Kus
.
172
Their words implied a threat.
.
:
/ )/ ( :(Interfere (v
to deliberately become involved in a situation and try to influence the way
that it develops, although you have no right to do this; intervene
The defective gene interferes with normal body processes.
.
:
/ )/ ( :(Literally (adv
used for showing that what you are saying is really true and not just an
impressive way of describing something
oT
There are literally thousands of companies using our software.
,
:
Major (adj): / - important, serious, large, or great +
Genetic factors play a major role in the development of anxiety disorders.
,
:
/ )/ ( :(Revision (n
something that has been changed, improved, or added to»
,
The article is subject to revision by the editors.
.
: OT
Statistical (adj):
/ )/ (
relating to statistic
My work involves a lot of statistical analysis of data. . :
Suffering (n): ) (/ ll
mental or physical pain or problems
The embargo has caused a lot of suffering to ordinary. people.
: ,
- :(Vague (adj
not clearly or fully explained; ambiguous
Soime aspects of the law were somewhat vague and ill- defined.
: oer
Jr :(Wane (v
become weaker; abate; opposite wax
038
His enthusiasm was waning fast.
174
:
Key words
Abnormal (adj): ciel 227
idual and / or the group
avior detrimental to the indivi maladaptive beh .
Abnormal brain development before birth may be responsible for many of
the brain dysfunctions.
.
:
Abnormality (n): sel
not usual or typical; shows that there may be something wrong of harmful . ence of any abnormality. The tests show no evid : :
.
Adjustment disorders (n): / A) )
category of disorders in which individual has difficulty adjusting to 3
common stressor gh
rders involve patterns of psychological and behavioral Adjustment disor :
.
disturbance that occur in response to Stressors. / /(
Anxiety disorders (n):. »
characterized by motor tension, hyperactivity and apprehensive thoughts
: .
Each of the anxiety disorders occurs more frequently in females than in males.
/ ) /(
Bipolar disorder (n):
«
mood disorder characterized by substantial mood fluctuations, cycling between very low (depressive) and very high (manic) moods
.
About 2 million Americans suffer from bipolar disorder.
: Lj
Diagnostic (adj):
)/ (
used for finding out what physical or mental problem someone has .
A diagnostic test is any kind of medical test performed to ad in the diagnosis or detection of disease.
0K :
Dissociative disorders (n):
/ )/ (
psychological disorders characterized by extreme splits or gaps in memory, identity, or consciousness
176
+
»
Dissociative disorders involve losses of memory and personal identity.
.
:
Distress (n):
/ fd )
negative stress
People in the lowest socioeconomic levels of society tend to have the
highest levels of psychological distress and illness.
— : . Eating disorders (n):
)/ / (
disorders related to eating (such as anorexia and bulimia)
) (
Eating disorders include serious and maladaptive disturbances in
eating behavior.
: . Mental disorder (n):
)/ / (
entire range of abnormal behavior patterns
Several classification systems are used to diagnose mental disorders.
.
:
Mental retardation (n):
/ /(
177significant limitations in intellectual functioning as well as in everyday adaptive behavior, which start before age 18
Nie 18
.
The incidence of mental retardation seems to increase at ages 5 to 6 and to drop off sharply after that.
: PIL # . Mood disorders (n):
)/ / (
category of psychological disorder that is characterized by disturbances in
emotional behavior that inhibit normal everyday functioning
CU . Multiple factors appear to be involved in the development of mood
disorders.
. :
Prevent (v):
/ /) Sp
to stop something from happening
Health psychology promotes health and prevents illness.
.
: «
Psychiatric (adj):
/
connected with the treatment of mental illness
Psychiatrists can prescribe medications, and they spend much of their time
patients on medication management as a course of treatment.
178
:
.
Schizophrenia (n): )
/ )/ -
psychotic disorder characterized by significant disturbances in thought and
emotion, especially problems with perception, including hallucinations
gabon yy)
About 1% of the population of the UK suffers from schizophrenia
during their lives.
: .
Social norm (n):
/ )/ Cop
agreed standards of behavior between a group (e.g., family; organization)
) (
Decisions about what is abnormal depend in part on the prevailing social
norms and values.
.
:
Somatoform disorders (n): ob )
occur when psychological symptoms take a physical form even though no
physical causes can be found
.
Somatoform disorders include hypochondriasis and conversion disorder.
:
Symptom (n):
/ - (plas)
179an observable manifestation of a physical or mental disorder
Negative symptoms of schizophrenia include immobility, reduction of speaking, and inability to complete tasks.
« : .
Syndrome (n):
)/ / (
group or pattern or symptoms which occur together in a disorder and
represent the typical picture of the disorder
8 OT
.
In psychology, a syndrome is the association of several clinical
recognizable features and signs.
» :
Psychological Disorders
It is more difficult than you might imagine deciding whether a given individual is abnormal or suffers from a mental disorder. Why is that The central problem is that concepts such as “abnormality” and “mental disorder” are vague. As Lilienfeld and Marino (1999) pointed out, the concept of “mental disorder” has fuzzy boundaries, so that “there is
no... set of criteria in nature that can be used to definitively distinguish all
cases of disorder from all cases of nondisorder”.
»
.
Or
) LS .
...
fs OF
. Point out/ ) /(
180
Fuzzy / ) /(
Definitively )/ ( /
One reason we cannot be precise about these issues is because they depend
in part on the prevailing social norms and values. For example, consider
changing views about homosexuality as reflected in a major classificatory
system known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM). In DSM-II, published in 1968, homosexuality was
classified as a mental disorder involving sexual deviation. By 1987, with
the publication of DSM-III-R (the revised third edition), only homosexuals
having persistent and marked distress about their sexual orientation” were
regarded as having a disorder.
SE . OT . 1488 DSM = [
.
VAY = = DSM
1 ) LE . Prevailing / ) /(
(/ ( / Homosexuality
/( ( / Reflected
( / Revised )/
00160188110077)
Most psychologists agree on three criteria that distinguish disordered from
healthy, or just different, behavior: It must be deviant, distressing, and
dysfunctional. Deviant literally means “different from the norm,” or
different from what most people do. This criterion allows for the fact that
behavior which is considered deviant in one culture might be considered
normal in others. Distressing behavior leads to real discomfort or anguish.
The distressing element is one reason we say a person is “suffering” from a
181disorder. It causes pain to the person and/or other people, especially family
members.
» . » sla . . So . . . - / ) /( 18766
/ Element -
Members / (54a) / Last
Dysfunctional behavior interferes with everyday functioning and
occasionally can be a risk to oneself or others. Dysfunctional also implies it
prevents one from participating in everyday social relationships, holding a
regular job, or being productive in other ways.
.
»
. Kos
/( Occasionaly / )
( / Participate )/
)/ ( / Regular
/ ) ( / Productive -
How do mental health professionals determine whether someone is
suffering from a psychological disorder A major tool for diagnosing
psychological disorders is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)
published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Beginning with
the third edition and continuing in the fourth edition, the DSM-IV-TR (for
182
“Text Revision”; APA, 2002), the DSM places disorders in one of two
diagnostic classifications, or axes. Axis I disorders are the major clinical
syndromes, or clusters of related symptoms that cause significant
impairment: anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia.
These disorders tend to develop after adolescence, can wax and wane, and
are not always permanent.
Axis II disorders include personality disorders and mental retardation,
which tend to appear in childhood or adolescence and cannot be cured.
Lol
(
Lol
78 (APA) DSM - = IV (
1007 APA )
.
» : . .
.
Publish / )
)/ ( /
)/ ( / Cluster
Permanent / ) cay (/ ails
)/ (
The DSM-IV-TR includes three additional axes, which list medical
conditions and environmental factors that may contribute to an
psychological state or affect treatment. Although DSM-IV-TR describes
more than 250 Axis I disorders, some of the most common disorders are
anxiety disorders, somatoform disorders. dissociative disorders, mood
disorders, schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, eating disorders,
sleep disorders, adjustment disorders and so on.
183DSM - IV =TR
.
DSM - IV - TR »
» » »
» » » Sony
asl
Additional / ) /
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 11.1
-
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢ or d.
.
1. The passage explains .......... v ...... .
a. how to prevent psychological disorders
b. causes of mental disorders
c. differences among mental problems
d. how to distinguish mental disorders
)
)
)
(
2. The word “disorder” is closest in meaning to ..........
disorder ) . .... »
a. illness c. well-being
b. lack of order d. image
184
) )
)
.3 It can be inferred from the passage that researchers have some difficulty
in classifying ..
)
a. mental syndromes >. health problems
b. mental disorders d. healthy people
) )
( (
.4 Anxiety disorders are among the .......... disorders.
) © . a. most dangerous rarest
b. most common d. most serious
) )
( (
Scientists believe that itis
..........
.5 to clearly say who is mentally
sick.
... (fw (
a. impossible c. difficult
b. not necessary d. easy
( (
) )
6. Which of the following is considered an Axis II disorder
(
a. mental retardation depression
b. bipolar disorder d. anxiety
( z( .
185) )
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise
2
1-7
Match the terms in column
A with their definitions in column B.
8
8
A
B
1. social norms A. when psychological symptoms take
a physical
2. symptom form
3.mental B. to stop something from happening
retardation C. not usual or typical
4.anxiety D. maladaptive behavior detrimental to the individual
disorders E. not clearly or fully explained
5. abnormality F. significant limitations in intellectual functioning
6. prevent G. characterized by motor tension, hyperactivity and
7. interfere apprehensive thoughts
8. vague H. to deliberately become involved in
a situation
9. abnormal 1. agreed standards of behavior between
a group
10. wane J.
a feeling of great physical or emotional pain
11.somatoform K. relating to statistic
disorders L. the fact that
a part of your body is unable to do
12. impairment something fully
13. distres M. negative stress
N. become weaker
©. an observable manifestation of
a physical or
mental disorder
Exercise 11.3
11-
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
186
. fend
.
.
symptom, somatoform disorders, schizophrenia, psychiatry, mood
disorders, revision, prevent, mental retardation, discomfort, mental
disorder, eating disorders, dissociative disorders, bipolar disorder,
anxiety disorders, abnormality, abnormal
1. Positive ............. of schizophrenia include hallucinations, delusional
thinking, and disorganized thought and speech.
.
( «
2. Genetic factors play
a major role in the development of )
....
Heredity predisposes some people towards developing .... .3
. .. .....
4. The incidence of .......... tends to be higher in cultures that discourage
open discussion of emotions.
) © . ....
.
is largely
ajudgment made by society.
.
Learning optimism can depression. .6
)
...
7. Low intellectual functioning and an inability to adapt to everyday life
refer to
)
)
).
entail the loss of
a sense of time and space.
.... .
9. .......... take
a number of different forms, including phobic disorder,
panic disorder, and etc.
187.are often called affective disorders.
(WO
11 It is a complex matter to find out why some people suffer from any given
.
( ... ....
12. There are no differences between the sexes in the rate at which
. occurs.
. .... .... 07
13. People are confused about the difference between psychology and
IF) + gry
14. Defining what is normal and what is
.
.
..
..
is problematic.
VF)
188
Personality Disorders
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
LS
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning. . 3 )
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
(Y . Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
)
admiration, arbitrary, cluster, destructive, discomfort, distinction,
evaluation, exploit, fantasy, gratification, harmful, impressionable,
impulsive, indifference, inflexible, irresponsible, oversensitivity,
perfectionism, preoccupied, submissive, suggestible
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
Y) :
antisocial personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder,
borderline personality disorder, dependent personality disorder,
grandiose, histrionic personality disorder, narcissistic personality
189disorder, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, paranoid
personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, schizotypal
personality disorder, self-image
3. Translate this lesson (personality disorders) into Persian.
F)
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
« .
General words
Admiration (n):
)/ / (
a feeling of respect or approval; esteem; respect
«
Teacher is full of admiration for all students’ hard work.
:
+
Arbitrary (adj):
- ) (
not based on any particular plan or done for any particular reason
he selection of the 30 participants was arbitrary in research.
:
Cluster (n):
/ (CdS
a small group of people or things that are very close to each other; array
«
190
Stars in the sky can often be seen in clusters.
:
Destructive (adj):
0
/ )/ ( -
causing sever damage or harm
Destructive criticism has a negative effect on adolescents.
.
:
Discomfort (n):
/ )/ (
absence of comfort; uneasiness of mind or body
/
Her behaviors caused us great discomfort.
.
:
Distinction (n): /( / )
a difference between two things; dissimilarity
The aim of this plan is to guarantee the rights of all citizens without
distinction of sex, education, or status.
: ) ( ¢
Evaluation (n):
1
Al
saying that something is good or not good; saying that something is not
useful or not effective . . 191Evaluation is different from measurement. . 06,8 :
Exploit (v):
= / )/ (
use selfishly, or for one's own profit; abuse
Adolescents are being exploited in many of these factories.
+
:
Fantasy (n):
- /
8 pleasant, exciting, or unusual experience that you imagine is happening to you; imagination
«
Fantasy is a term used to refer to the mental process of imagining objects, symbols or events not immediately present.
: » . Gratification (n):
/ (ESE)
state of being pleased
Ihave the gratification of knowing that I have done my duty. :
Harmful (adj):
/ )/ — (
causing harm; damaging
AT
192
This childrearing practices has harmful effects on children.
.
: S58
Impressionable (adj):
So
easily influenced; susceptible
You worry about teenagers because they are at such an impressionable age.
: ten
Impulsive (adj):
/
done suddenly, without thinking what the result will be; spontaneous
OAS «
People with antisocial personality disorder show impulsive behaviors.
.
:
Indifference (n):
25 )/ (
lack of interest or sympathy; apathy
Some people with personality disorder show indifference trait.
.
:
Inflexible (adj):
)/ / (
not willing to change your ideas, beliefs, or decisions
¢
Your viewpoints show an inflexible attitude.
193. :
Irresponsible (adj):
/ ) /(
done or said without thinking of the possible results of your actions or
words; careless
It was irresponsible of the manager to allow this to happen in the first time.
:
Oversensitive (adj):
)/ / (
easily becoming upset about things people do or say to do
Obsessive patients are oversensitive.
:
Perfectionism (n):
)/ / (
things to be done perfectly . Perfectionism can be seen in obsessive-compulsive personality
disorder.
: = .
Preoccupied (adj):
)
)/ / -
thinking about something so much or spending so much time doing
something that you do not notice other things
.
Farhad was too preoccupied with his own life to notice his son's problems.
194
/ )/ :(Submissive (adj . : ) (
willing to do what other people tell you to do without arguing
.
Your father is a submissive man.
.
:
Suggestible (adj):
)1 (
easily influenced by other people _
Children of this age are very suggestible. . :
Key words
Antisocial personality disorder (n):
/ /( )
characterized by impulsive, violent, deceptive, and criminal behavior . » »
In United States about 20% of female prisoners are diagnosed with
antisocial personality disorder.
TY : , Avoidant personality disorder (n):
/ /) Ey (
characterized by anxious, worrying, sense of inadequacy, nervousness
« .
195People with avoidant personality di vith a y disorder are so afraid of bei they avoid interacting with others and become socially id
:
ls
Borderline personality disorder (n):
/ / )
characterized by shifting moods, dramatic, impulsive, self-injury
» Those with borderline personality di b ty disorder ha -0f- i and very afraid of being abandoned by others. iis : [LV . Dependent personality disorder (n):
Sy / )
characterized by pervasive selfl essness, need t
rejection, total dependence on others © saved og of
i
2 » »
.
People with dependent personality disorder fear being rejected and have such a str ong need to be cared for and dependent relationships
: . days
Grandiose (adj):
Sy ) /(
intended to be impressive but not really possible or practical; imposing
Some people with personality disorder show grandiose behavior.
: . 196
Histrionic personality disorder (n): ) /( /
characterized by wild, exaggerated behaviors, extreme need for attention,
unstable relationship, shifting moods
»
» » »
.
People with histrionic personality disorder want very much to be the
center of attention and often behave in very dramatic and exaggerated
: .ways
.
Narcissistic personality disorder (n):
)/ / (
characterized by grandiose thoughts and sense of one's importance, lack of
concern for others
People with narcissistic personality disorder have an extremely positive
self-image and attention is self-focused.
.
:
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (n):
/ )/ = - (
characterized by extreme perfectionism and anxiety, very rigid activities
and relationships » se
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is characterized by repetitive
thoughts and behaviors.
.
- Paranoid personality disorder (n): /( / )
197characterized by extreme suspicions and mistrust of others in unwarranted
and maladaptive ways . A person with paranoid personality disorder is extremely suspicious
and mistrustful of other people. - :
.
Schizoid personality disorder (n):
) /( /
characterized by lack of interest in social relationships, inappropriate
emotion, thought, and coldness . Olt »
A person with schizoid personality disorder does not want close
relationships.
: . Schizotypal personality disorder (n):
) /( /
characterized by a desire to live an isolated and asocial life, but also by the
presence of odd thoughts and beliefs
A person with schizotypal personality disorder is isolated and asocial, but
in addition has very odd thoughts and beliefs.
: . Self-image (n):
)/ / (
the self one supposes oneself to be
Parents can reinforce positive self-image in their adolescents.
198
:
.
()/ / :(Suicide (n
taking one's own life; self-murder
Many depressed people consider suicide as a way to escape from the
unhappiness of their lives.
:
Personality Disorders
Personality consists of an individuals unique, long-term behavior patterns.
Personality disorders are maladaptive and inflexible patterns of cognition,
emotion, and behavior that generally develop in late childhood or
adolescence and continue into adulthood; they are more stable than clinical
disorders such as schizophrenia, depression, and bipolar disorder.
.
» SEL (Som
LT
» - Consist OF / /(
/ ) /( Long term
/ ) ( / Maladaptive
The distinction between clinical and personality disorders is somewhat
arbitrary, however, and many people with personality disorders also suffer
from clinical disorders. The DSM places the personality disorders on Axis
11, meaning they are relatively permanent, may show up in childhood, and
are viewed by the person as consistent with their personality and therefore
do not cause much subjective distress. There are three distinct clusters of
199personality disorders: odd-eccentric, dramatic-cmotional, and anxious- fearful.
.
,
(Sor
: - » - - / (eS gale
- /(0dd / (3T
ANXIOUS / (mail) /
)/ ) / Fearful
There are four major forms of dramatic impulsive cluster.
1. Antisocial personality disorder: severe irresponsible and antisocial behavior beginning in childhood and continuing past age 18; impulsive need gratification and lack of empathy for others; often highly manipulative and seem to lack conscience.
: )
18
)/ ( / Empathy
)/ 60006066(
Manipulative / ) ( /
2. Histrionic personality disorder: excessive, dramatic emotional reactions and attention secking; often sexually provocative; highly impressionable and suggestible; out of touch with negative feelings.
200
) » :
in »
)/ ( / -
)/ / Provocative
Impressionable / )
3. Narcissistic personality disorder: grandiose fantasies or behavior, lack of
empathy, and oversensitivity to evaluation; constant need for admiration
from others; proud self-display.
: )
»
/ ) /( Constant
Self-display / ( /(
)/ ( / Proud
4. Borderline personality disorder: pattern of severe instability of self-
image, interpersonal relationships and emotions, often expressing
alternating extremes of love and hatred towards the same person; high
frequency of manipulative suicidal behavior.
: « ( C635
Ge . Instability / ) /( - Alternating / ) /(
)/ /) Hatred
There are three major forms of anxious fearful cluster.
.
2011. Avoidant personality disorder: extreme social discomfort and timidity;
feelings of inadequacy and fearfulness of being negatively evaluated.
: ) . / ) /( Timidity
2. Dependent personality disorder: extreme submissive and dependent
behavior; fears of separation from those who satisfy dependency needs.
: (Y
)/ ) / Sepration
3. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: extreme perfectionism,
orderliness and inflexibility; preoccupied with mental and interpersonal
control.
( = = : «
( / Orderliness ) / «
There are three major forms of odd/ eccentric cluster. - 13,00
1. Schizoid personality disorder: indifference to social relationships and a
restricted range of experiencing and expressing emotions.
G03 gon : )
EXPressing / ( (/
)/ ( / Restrict
2. Schizotypal personality disorder: odd thoughts, appearance, and
behavior, and extreme discomfort in social situations.
( : )
.
202
Apperance / ) (/ pb
3. Paranoid personality disorder: an unwarranted tendency to interpret the
behavior of other people as threatening, exploiting or harmful. 0 : » - / ) /( Unwarranted
As many as 10 to 15 per cent of adults in the Europe may have personality
disorders. A study in Norway found a rate of 13.4 percent, equally
distributed among men and women. The most frequently encountered were
avoidant, paranoid, histrionic and obsessivecompulsive personality
disorders. :
Among the personality disorders, the most destructive to society is the
antisocial personality disorder. This personality disorder has received by
far the greatest attention from clinicians and researchers over the years. 18
.
WWF
.
»
»
.
» WT . ROW
)228( 7 Clinician /
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 12.1 17-
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢or d. _ . 8,0,©,0
1. The passage explains ..........
203a. clinical disorders ©. mental disorders
b. how to prevent disease d. types of unhealthy personality
( (
( (
2. The word “personality” is closest in meaning to ..
» personality » ) ... ..
a. individuality c. character
b. identification d. being a person
) )
)
3. It can be inferred from the passage that all personality disorders have
a. some symptoms . vague symptoms b. no symptoms d. horrible symptoms
( ( ) (
( (
4. DSM places personality disorders on ...........
) glial, ) DSM ...
.
a. axis II axis IV
b. axis ITI d. axis V
( UY gla oun (
( DY (
5. Personality disorders consist of clusters.
Au +
a. three c. five
b. four d. several
204
( z
flo )
Antisocial personality disorder is a form of .6
)
..... .
a. childhood disorder c. anxious [fearful disorder
b. dramatic/ impulsive cluster d. odd/eccentric disorder 0 ) / )
/ ) / )
7. One of the most destructive personality disorders is .... . Se (V
a. paranoid personality disorder c. antisocial personality disorder
b. dependent personality disorder 0. avoidant personality disorder
.
(
( .
) . ) . 205Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 12.2
17-
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
A B
A B
Lnarcissistic A. characterized by extreme suspicions and mistrust
personality of others
2. suicide B. planned on a large scale
3. perfectionism C. characterized by shifting moods, dramatic,
4. admiration impulsive
5.paranoid D. things to be done perfectly
personality E. characterized by grandiose thoughts and sense of
6.avoidant one's importance
personality F. causing harm
7. suggestible G. characterized by wild, exaggerated behaviors,
8. submissive extreme need for attention
9. harmful H. a feeling of respect or approval
10.borderline 1. easily influenced by other people
personality J. willing to do what other people tell you to do
11.histrionic K. characterized by impulsive, violent, deceptive, and
personality criminal behavior
12.antisocial L. strongest predictors of suicide
personality M. a small group of people
13. grandiose N. taking one's own life
0. characterized by anxious, worrying, sense of
inadequacy
206
Exercise 12.3 17-7
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
. ok
.
.
suicide, schizotypal personality disorder, histrionic personality
disorder, dependent personality disorder, borderline personality
disorder, avoidant personality disorder, fantasy, impressionable,
evaluation, antisocial personality disorder, schizoid personality
disorder, narcissistic personality disorder
1. Depression is one of the strongest predictors of
.
( ) ..... .... (
2. A person with wants to live in solitary life. .
3. People with .......... feel inadequate and have low self-esteem.
....
(
4. People with can be very emotional, intense, and selfcentered.
.
F)
5. The patient can not tell the difference between and reality: Pre ) 8
6. People with .........- feel safe only in relationships with others. ) © . 7. Adolescents are at the age. ) 7 .. ... of my research as soon as possible . (A 8. Can 1 have your.
9. People with ........... are more likely than most to hurt themselves.
207) .. .
10. People with .......... have an exaggerated sense of self-importance and
are grandiose.
.
( ...............
11. A person with .......... may believe that stories on TV or in the
newspaper were written directly about him.
208 « ( ..... ..
Psychological Treatments
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
LS
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning. . )
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study. )
.
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
disgusting, ingredient, inspire, prime, productive, recount, royal,
supportive, uncover, verbally
( :
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
:
abuse, biomedical approach, cognitive-behavioral, Freudian theory,
psychoactive drug, psychotherapy, repression, transference, treatment
3. Translate this lesson (psychological treatments) into Persian.
209)
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
«
General words
Disgusting (adj):
)/ / (
extremely unpleasant; very bad or shocking
The behavior of the student was quite disgusting.
:
Ingredient (n):
/ Caps)
one of the things that give something its character or make it effective; element
Good communication is an essential ingredient of good management.
: +
Inspire (v):
to give someone the idea for a piece of work; influence
This is a philosophy that inspired a revolution.
210
/ / ( -- -
Prime (adj):
Ceo /) )
most important
There is a prime force behind international terrorism.
: .
Productive (adj):
( -- -- Cano
achieving good results
Politeness is usually more productive. . :
Recount (v):
)/ - / (
to say what happened; describe; report
He recounted to them the story of his life at the university.
: .
1 (adj):
/ - ( (Gd
suitable for, supported by
«... ...
Practice is the royal road to success when learning a language. . :
Supportive (adj):
211/( )
helpful and sympathetic
My manager was very supportive when I was ill.
.
:
Uncover (v):
/ )/ (
to find out about something that has been hidden or kept secret; disclose;
make known
The initial investigation failed to uncover a number of important facts.
.
:
Verbally (adv):
)/ / (
using words, not physical force
«
She claimed that she had been verbally abused.
.
:
Key words
Abuse (v):
/ / ) (
make a bad or wrong use of; misapply
Child abuse includes any form of physical or psychological mistreatment
of a child by parents.
.
:
212
Biomedical approach (n):
/ / (
included are the various forms of drug therapies, electroconvulsive therapy,
and psychosurgery
.
«
Biomedical approaches are an umbrella term used to cover any form of
psychotherapy based on biological techniques.
: . Cognitive-behavioral (n):
- )/ / (
a treatment approach in which behavioral methods are applied to cognitive
OF . thoughts
Cognitive-behavioral therapy seems to be more effective in the treatment
of anxiety and depression.
: pdt - .
Freudian theory (n):
pel 8.3( /(
Freud's psychoanalytic theory
The term psychoanalysis refers not only to Freudian theory of
personality but also to the specific approach to treatment.
:
.
Psychoactive drug (n): ) /( /
213naturally occurring or s rally i substances that reli
qualitative changes in conscious experience db
.
Chemicals that produce alterations 1 i i rations in consciousness, ©0000
behavior are psychoactive drugs. i
.:
Psychotherapy (n):
/ )/ (
treatment of mental disorders by psychological methods
Psychotherapy is more effective for certain disorders than for others.
: .
Repression (n):
« RE (/ pl / - the unconscious act of keeping threatening thoughts, feelings, or impulses 8 8 8 8
aT
Repression involves forcing pai 1 g painful, threatening,
and memories out of consciousness. A
» :
Transference (n):
/ /) »
0 in psychotherapy in which the client reacts to a person in a present relationship as though that person were someone from the client's past
214
51
. wif
Transference occurs when the client responds irrationally to the analyst as
if he or she were an important figure from the client's past. :
Treatment (n): (La 8) /
any specific procedure designed to cure or to lessen the severity of a
disease or other abnormal condition . This is the mistaken notion that the success of a given form of treatment
reveals the cause of the disorder.
.
:
Psychological Treatments
( (
The basic goal of all psychotherapy, whatever the approach, is to help
people change maladaptive thoughts, feelings and behavior patterns so that
they can live happier and more productive lives. As the remarks of the
‘recovering patient’ suggest, the relationship between the client and the
person providing help is a prime ingredient of psychotherapeutic success.
Within that helping relationship, therapists use a variety of treatment
techniques to promote positive changes in the client. These techniques vary
widely; depending on the therapists’ own theories of cause and change, and
they may range from biomedical approaches (such as administering
psychoactive drugs) to a wide variety of psychological treatments.
»
,
,
li . 215Silay
.
) /( Recovery / - )06
Therapist / ) /(
)/ 0601
In psychotherapy a therapist and a client work together, or a therapist works with a group of people. People may engage in psychotherapy for self-development as well as for the treatment of psychological disorders.
. . 5088886
There are several types of psychotherapeutic approaches: psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, cognitive, and cognitivebehavioral. Each type of psychotherapy has its own explanation of what causes different disorders
as well as how they should be treated.
» » » :
/ Psychodynamic / )
Inspired by Freudian theory, psychodynamic psychotherapy aims to uncover unconscious motives that underlie psychological problems. The relationship between therapist and client in psychodynamic psychotherapy is that of a supportive partnership, in which the therapist listens to the client in a nonjudgmental manner. The therapist’s roles is to help the client gain insight into the unconscious
influences, the therapist may use techniques such as free association
216
or examine processes that might reveal unconscious motives, such as a
transference and repression.
. . . slg
/ ) /( Underlie
Nonjudgmental )/ ( /
One of Sigmund 10005 major contributions to psychology was
his argument that “dreams are the royal road to the unconscious”.
Freud’s two major techniques for interpreting dreams in order touncover
their unconscious content were free association and symbols. In free
association, the client recounts the dream and then takes one image or idea
and says whatever comes to mind, regardless of how threatening,
disgusting, or troubling it may be. After this has been done with the first
image, the process is repeated until the client has made associations with
all the recalled dream images.
) (
.
»
.
» . »
.
Symbol ) Ja) /
/( Troubling / )
217The second technique for interpreting dreams is through symbols; that is, dream images are thought of as representing or being symbolic of something else. The patient becomes aware of the disturbing thoughts in her or his unconscious and the problematic symptoms decrease,
. Ss
Distressing / ) /(
In the process of transference, the client reacts to someone in current relationship as though that person were someone from the
While past. the client is in therapy, that person is the therapist, but it can be
anyone in the present life circumstance. For example, a woman whose father was verbally abusive to her might find herself shirking her Job responsibilities because she experiences
extreme fear when her older male supervisor at work speaks with even a slightly raised voice. The supervisor thinks this is an overreaction, but he does not realize that the woman’s response stems from her relating to him as if he were her father.
OT
)/ ( / Circumstance - .AST - . . .
)/ ( /
( / Shirking / ) -
218
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 13.1
Choose the best choice a, b, or d. ie . 8,0,6,0
1. The passage explains ... )
a. theories of psychology
b. causes of mental disorders :
c. main points in treating mental disorders
d. psychological disorders
) )
( (
2. The word “therapy” is closest in meaning to
... .. » therapy » ) 1 b. treatment ¢. health d. well-being
. ( ( disorder
) ob, )
3. Tt can be inferred from the passage that the main goal of psychotherapy
is .
gr las SHY
a. diagnose mental illness 1
b. to bring happier and more productive life to patients
©. treat physical disorder
d. to prevent mental disorder
( (
( (
2194. The main aim of psychodynamic psychotherapy is
..
) ©
a. to find causes of mental disorders
b. to explain dynamic disorders
>. dynamics of psychotherapy d. to use dream in therapy
) )
( (
5. There are
. types of psychotherapeutic approaches.
a. two c. four
b. three d. several
Fe
Yo (
6. "Dreams are the royal road to the unconscious” refers to
( .
a. Freud >. Maslow
b. James d. Smith
) )
) )
7. Free association and symbols were used to
( .
a. treat madness ©. examine processes
b. interpret dreams d. cure physical disorders
( (
( (
Vocabulary Exercises
220
Exercise 13.2
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
8 A
A B
1. transference A. extremely unpleasant
2. treatment B. any specific procedure designed to cure
3.biomedical C. treatment of mental disorders by psychological
approaches methods
4. verbally D. make a bad or wrong use of
5. psychotherapy E. achieving good results
6. abuse F. process in psychotherapy in which the client
7. recount reacts to a person
8. supportive G. included are the various forms of therapies
9. prime H. helpful and sympathetic
10. royal 1. to say what happened
11. productive J. good management
12. inspire K. using words, not physical force
L. most important
M. suitable for, supported by
N. to give someone the idea for a piece of work
Exercise 13.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
treatment, abuse, Freudian theory, psychoactive drugs, repression,
psychotherapy, biomedical approaches, prime, recount, royal,
cognitive-behavioral therapy, transference, inspire
1. Psychoanalysis was the first systematic form of psychological ..........
for mental disorders.
221) . . ) . » »
.
concern 2.0ur is the safety of our customers.
) Y + 3 may be the most effective form of psychotherapy. . 6. Most.......... produce their effects by either increasing or decreasing the
action of
7. She has been much
( ...
8. The goal of .......... is to help clients achieve insight into the
unconscious dynamics.
A) .. OES .
the event.
..
..,
a person who was abused in childhood develops amnesia for
)
...
10. Positive. . occurs when a client transfers feelings of intense
affection, dependency or love to the analyst.
)
il pe) . .
11. Some of the most influential approaches in .......... are humanistic,
psychoanalytic, behavioral and cognitive.
223 222
Humanistic Psychotherapies
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
(
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
Coa
.
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
Jd OW )
blocking, contradictory, convinced, explore, genuinely, honestly, ingredient, reject
2. Define the meaning of the following specific words:
(
client-centered approach, empathy, humanistic therapy, unconditional
positive regard
3. Translate this lesson (humanistic psychotherapies) into Persian.
224
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
.
«
General words
Blocking (n): /( / 5
an amount of something, or a number of individual things that are
considered together as a single object
«
The hard disk contains a block of data.
) ( :
.
Contradictory (adj):
/ ) (
contradictory statements, information, ideas, or beliefs disagree with each
other and cannot both or all be true
5 » » . Your researches contain contradictory reports.
: .
Convinced (adj):
Wy)
certain that something is true
1 am not completely convinced she understood the value of the research.
225.
:
Explore (v):
/ )/ - (
to examine or discuss a subject, idea etc thoroughly
» ... He wants to explore how the human brain will work.
.
:
Genuinely (adv):
/ )/ (
honestly or in a sincere way
Iam genuinely sorry for the problems I have caused you.
: .
Honestly (adv):
/ )/ (
in a way that is honest and moral
He is trying to do his job honestly.
: wns
Ingredient (n):
/ (
one of the things that give something its character or make it effective
.
Good communication is an essential ingredient of good management.
.
:
Reject (v):
226
- /
to not agree to an offer, proposal, or request; refuse
Los ) ( «
It is almost certain that our offer will be rejected.
.
:
Key words
Client-centered approach (n):
/ )/ (
the therapist is non-directive and reflective and does not interpret or advise
except to encourage points
) ( . The main idea of client-centered approach is that people are not well
because there is a gap between whom they are and who they would ideally
like to be.
: . Empathy (n):
/ /) CEM
the ability to share the feelings of others and understand their situations;
sympathy; follow feeling
Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder lack the capacity for
empathy.
:
.
Humanistic therapy (n):
(/ / )
227emphasizes human potential, selfawareness, and freedom of choice
: .
Humanistic therapies proposed that the most important factor in
personality is the individual's conscious.
: .
Unconditional positive regard (n):
/ / ) ,55
the therapist's genuine liking and empathy for the client, regardless of what
he or she has said or done
5
A large number of studies have generally supported the importance of unconditional positive regard.
:
Humanistic Psychotherapies
Olaf
In contrast to psychodynamic theorists, who view behavior as a product of
unconscious processes, humanistic theorists view humans as capable of consciously controlling their actions and taking responsibility for their
choices and behavior. These theorists also believe that everyone possesses
inner resources for self-healing and
personal growth, and that disordered behavior reflects a blocking of
the natural growth process.
» . . - )25 / ) / Capable
)/ ( / Choice
228
) /( 71008 - Self-healing / ( ( / Kika
In contrast to classical psychoanalytic therapy, humanistic approaches
focus primarily on the present and future instead of the
past. The best- known and most widely used humanistic therapy is the
client- centered (now sometimes called person- centered) approach
developed by Carl Rogers. Rogers began to depart from psychoanalytic
methods. He became convinced that the important active ingredient in
therapy is the relationship that develops between client and therapist, and
he began to focus his attention on the kind of therapeutic environment that
seemed most effective in fostering selfexploration and personal growth.
Rogers's research and experiences as a therapist identified three important
and interrelated therapist attributes:
.
. .:
/) ( / Future
)/ - ( / Depart
)/ ( / Interrelated
1. Unconditional positive regard is communicated when the therapist
shows that he or she genuinely cares about and accepts the client, without
judgment or evaluation. The therapist also communicates a sense of trust in
the client's ability to work through his or her problems. )
AS
.
2. Empathy, the willingness and ability to view the world through the
client’s eyes, is a second vital factor. In a good therapeutic relationship, the
229therapist comes to sense the feeling and meanings experienced by the client
and communicate this understanding to the client. The therapist does this
by reflecting back to the client what she or he is communicating-perhaps
by rephrasing something the client has just said in a way that captures the
meaning and emotion involved.
(Y » . . . Willingness / /
) /( Vital /
3. Genuineness refers to consistency between the ways the therapist feels
and the way her or she behaves. The therapist must be open enough to
express his or her own feelings honestly, whether positive or negative. In
the case of negative feelings, this may scem to be contradictory to the
attribute of unconditional positive regard, but that is not necessarily the
case.
© ( .
.
)/ ( / Consistency
Rogers believed that when therapists can express these three key
therapeutic attributes, they create a climate in which the client feels
accepted, understood, and free to explore basic attitudes and feelings
without fear of being judged or rejected. Within such a climate, the client
experiences the courage and freedom to grow. In sum, humanistic therapies
seek to help the client reach his or her greatest potential.
» OT
.
230
.
) ( » LS
.
Climate / - 00886 = (/ - Oh
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 14.1 1-
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢ or d.
ih .
1. The passage explains that ......... . .. )
..
a. men are treated easily
b. mental disorders need no treatment
¢. man is able to prevent and treat his disorders
d. people do need doctors to treat disorders )
)
.
(
(
»
.
2. The word “client” is closest in meaning to client « adds )
« ..
a. customer . lawyer b. patient d. doctor )
( (
2313. It can be inferred from the passage that humanistic theories look for
ICY J
a. the future ©. the past
b. the present d. the present and the future
( (
( (
4. Rogers believed that the therapist should have .......... attributes.
© (
a. negative c. two
b. several d. three
(
( Yi
5. Which of the following would be considered
a therapist attribute + (0
a. anger c. empathy b. sensibility d. critical
(
) ( (
6. Psychodynamic theorists look for .. (8
a. the past c. the present
b. the future d. the present and the future
( (
( (
232
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise
2
3-7
Match the terms in column
A with their definitions in column B.
8
A
A
B
1. contradictory A. certain that something is true
2. explore B. to not agree to an offer, or request
3. convinced C. an amount of something
4. blocking D. honestly or in
a sincere way
5. genuinely E. therapist is non-directive and reflective
6.unconditional F. statements, information, ideas, or beliefs
positive regard disagree with each other
7. reject G. to examine or discuss
a subject, idea etc
8. ingredient thoroughly
9. empathy H. one of the things that give something its
10.humanistic character or make it effective
therapies
L the therapist's genuine liking and empathy for
the client, regardless of what he has done
J. the ability to share the feelings of others
K. client-centered approach
L. emphasizes human potential, self-awareness,
and freedom of choice
Exercise 14.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
unconditional positive regard, trust, empathy, client-centered
approach, genuinely, block, conditional acceptance, humanistic
therapies, explore, convinced
233help clients realize their full potential.
.
....
2. So ‘many studies have supported the importance of genuineness,
unconditional positive regard and ....
( « .... ... .
3........... is a form of psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers.
.
4. These are
.......... difficult issues for evaluating.
....
+
S.Itisworth.......... other ways of dealing with this problem.
6. Despite all my father's arguments, I still wasn't
©) . .
promotes trust and self-exploration in therapy. .
8. Rogers proposed that people develop psychological problems
largely because they have experienced ..........
(A
. .
234
Cognitive Therapies
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
(
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in
English to a level appropriate for university study. . Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
awful, distortion, ferret out, inadequate, misery, thoroughly, trigger,
unrealistically, virtually, worthless
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
Y) :
cognitive therapy, irrational, mood disorders, phobias, post-traumatic
stress disorder, rational-emotive therapy, self-defeating, substance
abuse
3. Translate this lesson (cognitive therapies) into Persian.
235(F
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples . General words
Awful (adj):
( ) /
used for emphasizing how unpleasant someone or something is; fearful
) ( /
I was worried that something awful had happened to him.
) ( : .
Distortion (n):
/ )/ (
a change that makes something no longer true or accurate; deformity
Practically all these early recordings suffer from distortion.
) ( :
Ferret out (v):
/ )/ (
to discover information by searching for it in a determined way
This research can ferret out the facts.
: .
Inadequate (adj):
236
1 /( (S50 - -
someone who is inadequate does not feel confident that they can deal with
the situation they are in; deficient
.
Some people feel totally inadequate when faced with new responsibilities. . :
Misery (n):
)/ / - (
the state of being extremely unhappy or uncomfortable
Children were living in misery, without school and clinics.
:
/ )/ ( :(Thoroughly (adv
very much; very carefully
1am thoroughly agreed with your idea. . :
Trigger (v): (er) /
to cause someone to have particular feelings or memories
.
) (
I think that familiar smells may trigger memories of childhood.
: AS
Unrealistic (adj):
)/ (
237based on hopes or wishes, and not on what is likely or possible; impractical
Many people in the workplace are set completely unrealistic targets. + :
Virtually (adv):
ity / )/ (
used for emphasizing that a statement is almost completely true; practically
Itis virtually impossible to convince him to eat drugs. . :
Worthless (adj):
/
not having any value, or not useful; valueless
«
The country's currency is nearly worthless.
. :
Key words
Cognitive therapy (n):
/( / )
any type of psychotherapy that works to restructure irrati ructure irrational thought
In cognitive therapy the therapist helps the client identify irrational thought patterns and then challenges these thoughts.
: . 238
)/ / ( :(Irrational (adj
not endowed with reason; reasonless; sophistic
Irrational beliefs help to produce clinical anxiety and depression.
.
:
Mood disorders (n):
/ )/ (
category of psychological disorder that is characterized by disturbances in
emotional behavior that inhibit normal everyday functioning
. The two major forms of mood disorder are depression and bipolar
disorder.
.
:
Phobias (n): Cag) - /
an anxiety disorder: an ongoing and irrational fear of a particular object,
situation, or activity
: oS «
As many as 1 in 8 people will develop a specific phobia for a particular
object or situation.
: EA ) (
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (n):
(DTSD) / )/ (
a type of anxiety disorder triggered by exposure to a horrifying event that
poses serious harm or threat
.
239Post-traumatic stress disorder is triggered by a specific distressing
event such as war or natural disaster.
:
Rational-emotive therapy (n): - / ) /(
the goal is to discover, dispute, and change the client's maladaptive beliefs
.
Rational-emotive therapy attempts to change the client's basic
maladaptive thought processes.
: ible — JEL
.
Self-defeating (adj):
Cal) - )
causing the same problems that you were intending to solve
.
Therapists try to change self-defeating behaviors. . :
Substance abuse (n):
) /( /
the practice of drinking too much alcohol or taking illegal drugs
All substance abuse behaviors are resistant to change, ge, and and for good goo:
1 .
Cognitive Therapies
Many behavior disorders, including anxiety, mood and schizophrenic
240
disorders, involve maladaptive ways of thinking about oneself and the
world. Cognitive approaches to psychotherapy focus on the role of
irrational and self-defeating thought patterns, and therapists who employ
this approach try to help clients discover and change the cognitions that
underlie their problems. » ) (
Sis .
«
.
In contrast to psychoanalysts, cognitive therapists do not emphasize the
importance of unconscious psychodynamic processes. Clients often need
help in identifying the beliefs, ideas, and selfstatements that trigger
maladaptive emotions and behaviors. Once identified, these cognitions can
be challenged and, with practice and effort, changed. Albert Ellis and
Aaron Beck are the most influential figures in the cognitive approach to
therapy.
OES . »
»
. . .
Influential / ) Juss
Figures / Las!
Albert Ellis originally trained as a psychoanalytic therapist, but became
convinced that irrational thoughts, rather than unconscious
dynamics, were the most immediate cause of self defeating emotions.
Rational-emotive therapists introduce clients to commonly held irrational
beliefs and then train them to ferret out the particular ideas that underlie
their maladaptive emotional responses. Clients are given homework
assignments to help them analyze and change selfstatements.
- . Cle
21SES
.
.
-
Immediate / )
They may be asked to place themselves in challenging situations and
practice control over their emotions by using new selfstatements. Some of
the irrational beliefs are listed below. It is a dire necessity that I be loved
and approved of by virtually everyone for everything I do I must be
thoroughly competent and achieving to be worthwhile. To fail is to be a
failure It is terrible and awful when things are not the way I demand that
they be Human misery is externally caused and forced on us by other
people and events Because something deeply affected me in the past, it
must continue to do so.
J ginal . :
) (
. . »
. . Homework / ( - - Assignment / ) (/
/ ) 60006601 - ()/ /Dire
)/ / Worthwhile
22 — Demand / ) /( Beck (1976) argued that many of the cognitive distortions of depressed patients center around the cognitive triad. This consists of negative thoughts that depressed individuals have about themselves, about the world, and about the future. Depressed patients typically regard themselves as helpless, worthless, and inadequate. They interpret events in the world in an unrealistically negative an defeatist way. The final part of the cognitive triad involves depressed individuals seeing the future as totally hopeless, because their worthlessness will prevent any improvement occurring in their situation. 1497# ( ) ) ( . . Lis » » . . AS Traid/ - ( / ) /( Helpless Defeastist / ) (/ Hopeless / According to Beck, two maladaptive forms of thinking in depressed patients are negative automatic thoughts and overgeneralization (e.g, “I always make a mess of things”). Negative automatic thoughts are triggered effortlessly when depressed individuals experience failure. Overgeneralization involves drawing very general negative conclusions from specific evidence. For example, failing to obtain one particular job is interpreted as meaning that the depressed person will never find a job again. ¢ : ( Cd ) . 23.
.
» . Overgeneralization / /(
/ ( / Evidence -- )/ ) / Conclusion -
Therapists integrate cognitive techniques for restructuring irrational
thoughts with behavioral techniques to shape desirable behaviors in what is
known as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). It is a short term
psychological treatment that has been successfully applied to disorders as
varied as depression, phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
obsessive-compulsive disorder, eating disorders, and substance abuse. - (CBT) . » - .
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 15.1
5-
Choose the best choice a, or d.
.
1. The passage explains ..............
( .... AS
a. psychological approaches to disorders
b. maladaptive ways of thinking and cognitive therapy
>. cognitive approach to anxiety
d. strange thoughts and their causes
244
)
)
)
(
2. The word “cognition” is closest in meaning to
( cognition » gals «
a. knowing > disorder
b. perception d. recognizing ) )
) Sl )
3. It can be inferred from the passage that cognitive therapists do not
emphasize the importance of. .a. unconscious physical drives
b. sexual impressions
>. medical interventions
d. unconscious psychodynamic processes
( sla (
) )
4. Cognitive therapists try to help patients to identify ..
F) ....
a. their harmful beliefs and ideas ¢. emotional disorders
b. past experience d. dream patterns
( (
( (
Negative automatic thoughts and overgeneralization is seen in .5
patients.
245.
BD) ns
a. phobic c. depressed
b. addicted d. anxious
( (
( (
6. According to cognitive therapy, the main cause of depression is ... Sa
a. negative and irrational thoughts failing to achieve one's goal
b. repeated past failure d. genetic aptitude
) )
( (
Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 15.2
5-7
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
8 8
A B
A. an anxiety disorder
B. not endowed with reason
C. very carefully
D. the practice of drinking too much alcohol or
taking illegal drugs
E. to cause someone to have particular feelings
or memories
F. causing the same problems that you were
intending to solve
G. any type of psychotherapy that works to
restructure irrational thought patterns
H. based on hopes or wishes
246
1.cognitive therapy
2. substance abuse
3. self-defeating
4. phobias
irrational
6. thoroughly
7. trigger
8. worthless
9. virtually
10. awful
11. misery
12. distortion
1. used for emphasizing that a statement is
almost completely true
J. the state of being extremely unhappy
K. not having any value, or not useful
L. a change that makes something no longer
true
M. used for emphasizing how unpleasant
someone or something is
Exercise 15.3
-
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
substance abuse, fact, self-defeating, inadequate, irrational beliefs,
awful, cognitive therapy, unrealistic, thoroughly, rational-emotive
therapy, phobia, mood disorder, virtually
1. Approximately half of the individuals who suffer from an anxiety
disorder also suffer from
+
.
)
focuses on discovering and changing maladaptive beliefs
and logical error of thinking.
....
3. Some automatic thoughts may be leading to .......... tendencies.
.
( ... .
4.Aan).......... is a persistent and unreasonable fear of a particular
object, situation, or activity.
247) . ... ...
8 the therapist poses questions that help the client recognize
erroneous logic that may support problematic thinking,
8) cn
.
»
6.
.......... is highly associated with other disorders and is often part
of a larger pattern of maladjustment.
) #
+
7. There is convincing evidence that anxious and depressed patients
have
.
and thoughts. + (V
8. This is clearly a distortion of the
.
9. Vaccines have
...........
eliminated many childhood diseases. » .... 10.1tis
. .
to expect children to sit quietly that long.
Cd
( ....
11. The children
............... enjoyed the movie.
( .
12. She had the
. feeling that everyone was laughing at her.
248 . .... :.. (
Behavior Therapies
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
_
( Ole
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
.
Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
accordingly, appropriate, comparable, decade, delivering, evoke,
extinction, habituate, inhibit, intention, monitor, realistic,
troublesome, virtual, vividly
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
Y) OW
aversion therapy, behavior therapy, classical conditioning, exposure
therapy, operant conditioning, reinforcement, reward, social phobia,
token economy
2493. Translate this lesson (behavior therapies) into Persian.
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples
.
General words
Accordingly (adv):
/ )/ (
in a way that is appropriate for the situation; consequently
They have broken the rules and will be punished accordingly.
: .
Appropriate (adj):
/ - / (1
suitable or right for a particular situation or purpose; fit
We need to ensure the teaching they receive is appropriate to their
needs.
. :
Comparable (adj):
/ )/
equal to something else in quality or importance
Her achievements are comparable with the best.
250
:
.
Decade (n):
/ )/ (
a period of ten years
Stress resources have risen sharply in the lat decade.
: .
)/ / ( :(Delivering (v
to take something, especially goods or letters, to a place
These documents should be delivered to the Registrar at the end of
academic year.
:
.
Evoke (v):
)/ / - (
to bring a particular emotion, idea, or memory into your mind
«
The recent accident evoked memories of last year accident.
: ) (
Extinction (n):
/ / ) - (
making, being, becoming
« «
Research my lead to the extinction of a disease.
: .
Habituate (v):
251) /( /
get used to; accustom
-
should habituate yourself to hard work.
: .
Inhibit (v):
/ -
to prevent or slow down the activity; forbid
«
Students may be inhibited from coming to him with their problems.
: .
Intention (n):
/
8 in your mind to do something; design
«
No one goes to college with the intention of failing.
: .
Monitor (n):
)/ / (
a computer screen, or the part of a computer that contains the screen
The monitor showed that someone was moving around in the car park.
.
Realistic (adj):
/ )/ (
based on facts and situations as they really are
252
.
It is time to make a realistic assessment of the danger.
: .
Troublesome (n):
/ Clad --
causing problems or difficulties, especially in an annoying way
His behavior is very troublesome today.
: .
Virtual (adj):
[do /) (
created by computers or appearing on computers or the Internet
Sl
Students would get their degrees from virtual universities.
: .
Vividly (adv):
/ )/ (
if you have a vivid imagination, you are able to imagine ideas, images, etc
very easily
1 .
1 still remember the movie vividly.
: .
Key words
Aversion therapy (n):
/ Cals
253use unpleasant or painful stimuli in a controlled fashion for the purpose of
altering behavior patterns in a therapeutic way
The goal of the aversion therapy is the development of a conditioned
aversion in order to reduce specific behavior.
: ) ( .
Behavior therapy (n):
)/ / (
therapies that apply the principles of classical and operant conditioning in
the treatment of psychological disorders .In behavior therapy, therapists apply the principles of learning
techniques to treat psychological disorders.
»
Classical conditioning (n):
/ )/ .
form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a
stimulus to which one has an automatic, inborn response . In classical conditioning, organisms learn from the relations between
stimuli.
. a WSS :
Exposure therapy (n):
/ )/ Cf
to the feared conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned
stimulus
GUS
254
Some critics of exposure therapy are concerned that the intense anxiety
created by the treatment may worsen the problem.
: . Operant conditioning (n):
/ (S551 (
the process of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that
behavior
Operant conditioning demonstrates the environment's power in
shaping behavior.
:
.
Reinforcement (n):
/ )/ (ey in)
any set of circumstances that an organism finds pleasurable or satisfying .
Positive reinforcement refers to presenting a stimulus; negative
stimulus refers to removing a stimulus.
en : .
Reward (n):
- df
any event or thing that is pleasurable or satisfying that is obtained when
some requisite task has been carried out
.
The term reward is often misused as a synonym for the term positive
reinforce.
:
255Social phobia (n):
gar )/ ( /
excessive fear of situations in which the person might be evaluated and
possibly embarrassed
Valium is widely prescribed for social phobias.
:
Token economy (n):
/ )/ (
a behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a
token, such as a small chip or fake coin
OT
.
Token economies have been applied successfully within business, school,
and home environments to increase desirable behaviors,
:
Behavior Therapies
Behavior therapy developed during the 1950s and 1960s, but its origins go
back several decades before that. The underlying notions are that most
mental disorders are caused by maladaptive leaming, and that the best
treatment consists of appropriate new learning.
500 .
OT OT
.
Behavior therapists believe that abnormal behavior develops through
conditioning. There are two main forms of conditioning: (1) classical
conditioning involving learning by association; and (2) operant
conditioning involving learning by reinforcement or reward. Behavior
256
therapists argue that classical and operant conditioning can change
unwanted behavior into a more desirable pattern of behavior.
) ) :
.
.
Notions /
Unwanted / )07 /
Behavior therapy has an emphasis on current problems and behavior, and
on removing any symptoms the client finds troublesome. Three forms of
behavior therapy are listed below.
.
[ROW
(/ ( / Emphasis
1. Exposure therapy: Exposure therapy involves putting the client in feared
situations (e.g., social situations for social phobia), with the feared situation
becoming gradually more intense over time. It is used extensively in the
treatment of phobias or extreme fears. Exposure therapy has proved
successful in the treatment of most anxiety disorders. It is assumed that
phobic fears are acquired by classical conditioning, with the conditioned or
phobic stimulus (e.g., a snake) being associated with a painful or aversive
stimulus creating
fear. The repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus in exposure
therapy leads to extinction or habituation of the fear response.
) :
) (
.
( . )
.
.
257Intense / (ui) /
AVErSIV / 1) 1
2. Aversion therapy: In classical aversive conditioning a neutral or positive
stimulus is paired with an unpleasant or aversive stimulus (e.g., electric
shock). This causes an aversive reaction (e.g., anxiety) to the neutral or
positive stimulus. Aversive therapy is based on aversive conditioning. For
example, an alcoholic is given aversive stimuli (e.g., electric shocks) while
starting to drink alcohol. The intention is that alcohol will produce feelings
of anxiety and so inhibit drinking.
/ ) ( / Alcoholic - . . . . . : (
3. Token economy: The token economy involves selective positive
reinforcement or reward. It is used with institutionalized patients who are
given tokens colored counters) for behaving appropriately.
Dickerson, Tenhula, and Green-Paden (2005) reviewed 13 studies of the
token economy being used with schizophrenics. Beneficial effects were
reported in 11 of these studies. The token economy is not used much
nowadays in the treatment of schizophrenics, who are now mostly treated
in the community. One reason for reduced use of the token economy is that
it is very hard to exert the required level of environmental control within
the community.
) . :
) (
.
»
WW -
.
Ol .
.
» lets . / ) /( Institutionalized
258
( / Nowdays )/
( /Exert )/ --
Computer technology has provided a new method for delivering exposure
treatments by bringing the external environment into the therapy room.
Virtual reality (VR) involves the use of computer technology to create
highly realistic virtual environments that simulate actual experience so
vividly that they evoke many of the same reactions that a comparable real-
world environment would. Observers typically wear helmets containing
two small video monitors (one for each eye) attached to a high-speed
computer. The image to each eye is slightly different, producing binocular
depth perception cues that result in a three-dimensional image. With the aid
of position-tracking devices, the computer monitors the person’s physical
movements and adjusts the images and sounds accordingly. Observers thus
have a vivid sense of being ' present ' in a different place when navigating
through the virtual world. . .
. - .
.
Three / ) /( dimensional
Simulate / (Ll gras ( / - Navigating / ) /(
/ / Helmet
) /( Binocular /
2596065 / ) ( /
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 1
1-
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢ or d.
3,0,6,d .
1. The passage explains ..........
( .... ..
a. cognitive therapy
b. treating disorders by changing behavior
©. how to prevent depression
d. how conditioning work
(
)
(
.2 It can be inferred from the passage that the main cause of mental
disorders is
Y) .. Le
a. suppressed wishes > confusion
b. negative past experience d. maladaptive learning
( (
( (
3. Learning by association is called
260
a. classical conditioning >. exposure therapy
b. operant conditioning d. virtual reality ) )
( (
4.10 this context, the best treatment for mental disorders is .... 0
... ( ... JCI
a. aversion therapy c. appropriate new learning
b. taking medicine d. hypnotism ) )
) )
5. Which of the following is not a form of behavior therapy
a. exposure therapy . aversion therapy
b. role play d. token economy ) )
( (
6. The passage gives .......... forms of behavior therapy. . 11 ........... )#
a. two c. four
b. three d. five ) )
( (
261Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 16.2
-7
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
A B
4 B
1.behavior therapy A. excessive fear of situations in which the
2.aversion therapy person might be evaluated
3. troublesome B. suitable or right for a particular situation
4. social phobia C. any event or thing that is pleasurable or
5. realistic satisfying
6. reward D. therapies that apply the principles of
7. virtual classical and operant conditioning
8. monitor E. equal to something else
9. intention F. use unpleasant or painful stimuli in a
10. habituate controlled fashion for the purpose of altering
11. decade behavior
12. extinction G. a period of ten years
H. created by computers or appearing on
computers or the Internet
I. making, being, becoming, extinct
J. causing problems or difficulties
K. a computer screen
L. based on facts and situations
M. get used to
N. a plan in your mind to do something
262
Exercise 16.3
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
token economy, reward, evoked, aversion therapies, reinforcement,
operant conditioning, upset, appropriate, exposure therapies, monitor,
emotional responses, comparable, behavior therapy, virtual, social
phobia
1. It is common to confuse negative .......... with punishment.
.. ) (
.
)
2. includes a fear of public speaking, a fear of eating in
public, etc.
» ...
is a system for strengthening desired behaviors.
....
...
do not function as positive reinforces.
F)
many instances ... 4.10 . Phobias and other fears result from classically conditioned . .5 )8
...
.
6. 11 , organisms learn from the consequences of their behavior. .
7. The most commonly used classical conditioning procedures are
and aversion therapy.
V)
8. The instructions are displayed on a (an) ..
.
A) .....
263focuses on changi i 1
motives. ging behavior, rather than thoughts, feelings, or
. 4 »
10. Unfortunately, treatment gains from................... often fails to
generalize from the treatment setting to the real world.
» ) ...
.
.11 Your song .......... our memories.
)
.....
Some students like to study ina (an) .......... university. .12
( ...
It was not my intention to .......... .13 you.
264
Combined Approaches
General aims
This unit will enable students to acquire:
1. Students develop reading skills including skimming and scanning.
.
0
2. This chapter aims at raising students’ general proficiency in English to a
level appropriate for university study.
sly (dH . Behavioral objectives
The present lesson has two specific aims:
:
1. Define the meaning of the following general words:
( :
debilitating, dialectic, draw on, impaired, intensive, mindfulness,
numerous, optimal, orientation, recognize, reflect, severely, sufficient,
tolerate, welcoming
2. Define the meaning of the following key words:
:
clinician, cognitive analytic therapy, deprivation, dialectical behavior
therapy
3. Translate this lesson (combined approaches) into Persian.
265“)
Word study
Study the following definitions, synonyms and examples . General words
Debilitating (adj): - /( / )
making someone physically or mentally weak
He is suffering from a debilitating disease.
:
Dialectic (n):
( ) /( / )
the way in which two different forces or ideas exist together or affect each
other
OT .
A critical analysis of mental processes is dialectic. . : ) (
Draw on (v):
)
/ )/ -
to use something that you have gradually gained or saved 4 . Your body draws on its reserves of fat when you are fasting. . :
266
ired (adj): Impaire (adj) /
if your body's ability to do something is impaired, you are not fully able to
doit
0
« OF .
Singing is provided for the hearing-impaired.
( ) -- : JOU
Intensive (adj): i 0 ) /( /
involving a lot of effort, energy, or attention
3
Students and teachers had three weeks of intensive negotiations.
.
) ( :
Mindfulness (adj): pala) /
careful about or conscious of something; aware
You should be mindful of yours duties.
:
Numerous (adj): 5 (pps)
existing in large numbers; many
She had numerous other duties apart from teaching.
.
:
timal (adj): Optimal (adj) ) /(
267best or most suitable within a range of possibilities
We can create the optimal environment for learning to occur.
:
Orientation (n):
Sr / - the particular interests, aims, and emphasis of a political group or other organization
»
The university is increasing orientation toward applied sciences.
-
/( /
Recognize (v):
to accept that something is true or important
We recognize that there are some problems with the current system,
: .
Reflect (v):
/ )/ - (
to show the existence or nature of something
He said that the statement did not reflect his own views.
: .
Severely (adv):
/ )/ (
very seriously; in a very strict or extreme way
Children were severely injured in the accident.
268
:
.
:(Sufficient (adj
;as much as is needed
a
There is no sufficient evidence to prove his claims. \
.
:
te (v): Tolerate )( 6) - /
to allow someone to do something that you do not like or approve of;
endure
OT «
He will not tolerate anyone questioning his decisions.
.
:
ing (adj):
Welcoming (x) ) — /( / i t friendly and unpleasan
i ti i i here. 1t is a traditional hotel with a welcoming
.
:
Key words
Clinician (n):
a doctor who works directly with people who are ill
AS
To an increasing extent, clinicians are embracing eclecticism.
269: . Cognitive analytic therapy (n):
( / / Col 7
is based on the psychoanalytic and cognitive approaches
.
Cognitive analytic therapy has been used in treating personality
disorders.
:
Deprivation (n):
) 1( /
the state of a child who has formed a close relationship to someone but is
later separated from that person; privation
OT oS 4
Crap
According to Bowlby, deprivation in and of itself self oftenoft causes longterm
. » :
Dialectical behavior therapy (n):
(li /( /
developed by Marshal Linehan for the treatment of borderline personality
disorder
Dialectical behavior therapy shows a growing trend towards eclecticism. . :
270
Combined Approaches
Some integrative approaches combine different types of psychotherapy or
combine nontraditional practices with traditional approaches. Sometimes
the optimal treatment for a psychological disorder may be to combine
drugs with psychotherapy. We will look at combinations of drugs with
psychotherapy, integrative psychotherapy, and the integration of
mindfulness practices with psychotherapeutic techniques. . »
SED
. - (/ (/ Integrative
Traditional ( / )/
Given the dynamic interplay between biological and psychological
influences in determining many psychological disorders, combining these
two approaches might work better than either alone. The drugs can modify
some of the debilitating effects of a disorder enough so that the patients can
function sufficiently well to learn techniques that might help in changing
their problematic thinking and behavior. This approach works best for
mood and anxiety disorders, in which thinking is not severely impaired.
For example, CBT combined with drugs has been used most effectively to
manage depression. The drugs help manage the depressive state, and the
CBT helps clients recognize and control the thought patterns that may push
them into depressive states.
.
.
.
CBT . CBT oS
.
271Interplay / ( /(
(Modify / (isi
Some therapists take an eclectic approach to psychotherapy, which means
that they draw on numerous techniques in their work with clients. These
clinicians are typically trained in many methods and use those that seem
most appropriate given the situation. They are not loyal to any particular
orientation or treatment, but rather draw on those that seem most
appropriate given the situation.
) (
. DEAS
.
.
-
) ( /
We have now surveyed
a variety of therapeutic orientations. Cognitive analytic therapy (CAT) finds its origins in the ho:
J
Tis
8 psychoanalytic and co;
approaches. Cognitive analytic therapy
4 cognitive
says that social interactions with important people in our world help us to form our views of ourselves and the world around us. Important people
may include our mother. If the mother helps the child reflect on their
thoughts and interactions then development will be more likely to be self-
aware. This provides the beginnings of
a moral frame
i work that
developed through further interaction with society. i
.
(CAT)
.
.
. Tsp .
/ /(
Interaction / 7
272
Self-aware
/) /
Moral
)/ ( /
)/ / Framework
These multiple interactions help the child develop, but making mistakes in
the interactions or making incorrect assumptions can cause difficulties.
Open, welcoming conversations provide
a basis for development of the
relationship. Another integrative approach is dialectical behavior therapy
(DBT), developed by Marsha for the treatment of borderline personality
disorder. The word dialectic describes the contradictions in emotional and
interpersonal behavior, thinking, and self-concept that characterize the
borderline life. Dialectical behavior therapy includes elements
from cognitive, behavioral, humanistic and psychodynamic therapies to
address the many aspects of this disorder.
»
.
.
(DBT)
+ .
.
. CL »
)/ ( / Contradiction
Mistake
/) /
It is intensive in nature, with clients seen in both individual and groups
sessions by multiple therapists. Behavioral techniques are used to help
clients learn interpersonal, problem-solving and emotion—control skills.
Cognitive approaches are employed to help clients learn more adaptive
thinking about the world, relationships and themselves.
A psychodynamics
element traces the history of early deprivation and rejection that created
many of the problems.
A humanistic emphasis on acceptance of thoughts
and feelings has now been added to help clients better tolerate on
unhappiness and negative emotions as they occur.
273»
OT . .
. . »
Trace/( 1(
)/ ( / Rejection
Understanding the Passage
Exercise 17.1
17-
Choose the best choice a, b, ¢ or d.
.
1. The passage explains ................
)
.... ..
a. integrating two therapies
b. how to combine several therapies
. the use of some different therapies together
d. combining different drugs
) )
.2 The ) )
word “integrative” is closest in meaning to
( . «
a. combined c. medical
b. interactive d. interrelated
( ( (ash)
274
) )
3. It can be inferred from the passage that combining drugs with
psychotherapy i
RTI SCF .
a. an ineffective treatment not an optimal treatment
b. a little unclear treatment d. an optimal treatment
( (
( ( 6
4. CBT and drugs have been used successfully to treat ) CBT ... a. insomnia ¢. depression
b. anxiety d. phobia ) )
) ©
5. DBI is used for the treatment of ....
gp ... DBI © ..... a. anxiety disorders ¢. phobias
b. depression d. borderline personality disorder ) )
( (
6. Which of the following would not be considered an element in
dialectical behavior therapy )
a. drug therapy . humanistic therapy
b. cognitive therapy d. behavior therapy ) )
( (
275Vocabulary Exercises
Exercise 2
Match the terms in column A with their definitions in column B.
A 8
A B
1.cognitive A. the state of a child who has formed a close
analytic therapy relationship to someone but is later separated
2. clinician from that person
3. mindfulness B. to show the existence or nature of something 4. deprivation ©. who works directly with people who
5. sufficient are ill
6. welcoming D. is based on the psychoanalytic and cognitive 7. dialectic approaches
8. tolerate E. friendly and unpleasant
9. reflect F. to use something that you have gradually
10. numerous gained
11. intensive G. to allow someone to do something that you do 12. debilitating not like
H. enough
1. the way in which two different forces or ideas
exist together
J. existing in large numbers
K. careful about or conscious of something
L. involving a lot of effort, energy
M. in a very strict or extreme way
N. making someone physically or mentally weak
276
Exercise 17.3
7-7
Fill in the blanks: use the correct form of the words given to complete the
sentences that follow. There are more words than needed.
.
.
.
dialectical behavior therapy, deprivation, clinician, recognize,
draw on, debilitating, impaired, welcoming, sufficient, severely,
mindful, numerous, intensive
1. The notion that most .......... rigidly stick to a single therapeutic
approach is increasingly incorrect.
(
is designed to help clients develop a nonjudgmental attitude
toward their emotions and to accept their current behavior . . {Y
language course for beginners.
.
3. There is a (an) .
) ....
4, Bowlby claimed that many of the negative effects of maternal ..........
are permanent and irreversible. ©) pb ...
5. There is 20 .......... literature in your research.
)0
6. The people of this area are all so friendly and .. ©) . 17116 that he was not qualified for that job.
... OT .
8. If anyone breaks the rules, they will be punished
SNA . 277 « ..9013 friends can not support you.
) . ... ...
10. As a counselor, you often .......... your own life experiences.
( 6K « ..
11. She is living in a (an) .......... condition.
( .. Ss
278
The title of the "best" psychology book used in universities can vary depending on the course and specialization. However, some textbooks are widely regarded as essential reading in many undergraduate and graduate psychology programs due to their comprehensive coverage of fundamental concepts, research methods, and theoretical perspectives. Here are some of the most respected and commonly used psychology textbooks in universities:
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Why It's Popular: Kalat's textbook is a leading resource for courses on biological psychology, known for its clear explanations and integration of neuroscience with psychology.
Key Features: Covers neural functioning, sensory systems, movement, cognition, and psychological disorders from a biological perspective, with numerous illustrations and examples.
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These textbooks are highly regarded in the academic community for their depth, clarity, and ability to engage students. They provide a solid foundation for understanding the various subfields and concepts within psychology, making them excellent choices for university courses.
